India dwelt in small agricultural and pastoral communities, and each community seems to have had its own god. These gods, in the form in which they now exist, differ very notably from those of the Hindu pantheon. Thus, with few exceptions, they are female, not male like the chief Hindu gods; they are worshipped with animal sacrifices, and they have no special sacerdotal caste associated with them. It seems probable that originally, i.e. before the Aryan invasion, the village gods not only protected their worshippers from harm, but had associated with them a cult whose object was to promote animal and vegetable fertility, and that the animal sacrifices especially had this object. Under the competition of the Hindu divinities and cult, however, the older gods and the older cult have lost importance, and the village gods are now called upon chiefly in times of plague and pestilence affecting man or beast. The process of decay is indicated by the variations in the festivals and forms of worship in the different localities. In some villages daily offerings of rice, fruit, and flowers, with incense and camphor, are still made at the shrine of the local god. In many there is a fixed annual festival, sometimes assuming the character of a harvest festival. In most places, however, there is no regular annual festival, sacrifices only being offered when an epidemic occurs. Old men in some villages are stated to have complained to the author that, owing to the decay of religion, the annual sacrifices had given place to one offered only every four or five years. In other words, it would appear that despite the popularity of the great Hindu deities, Siva and Vishnu, the cult of the older local god still lingers, and is always apt to be revived in a time of calamity. Very detailed accounts of the modes of worship practised in the different parts of South India are given, and those interested in primitive religion will find much valuable material in the book. AMERICA. The Andes of Southern Peru. By ISAIAH BOWMAN, Director of the American Geographical Society. Published for the American Geographical Society, New York, by Henry Holt and Co., 1916. With Maps and Illustrations. This handsome volume gives an account of part of the geographical work of the Yale Peruvian Expedition of 1911, which was essentially a reconnaissance of the Peruvian Andes along the 73rd meridian. The author's division of the Expedition undertook to make a contour map of the 200-mile stretch of mountain country between Abancay and the Pacific Coast. This was an extremely laborious and difficult undertaking, and many of the triangulation stations ranged from 14,000 to nearly 18,000 feet in elevation, where the cold and hailstorms were most severe at times. "In The First Part deals with the Human Geography of the region, including the author's travels in the cañons of the Urubamba, and describes the wonderful scenery and the various peoples in the different climatic zones from the coast to the snowline. In the lower tropical forests rubber is produced from the wild tree, and a chapter is devoted to its cultivation and to the hard lot of the natives, who live in a state of peonage here, as in other Spanish-American republics. South America there has lingered from the old slave-holding days down to the present a labour system more insidious than slavery, yet no less revolting in its details, and infinitely more difficult to stamp out. It is called peonage; it should be called slavery. In Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil it flourishes now as it ever did in the fruitful soil of the interior provinces, where law and order are bywords, and where the scarcity of workmen will long impel men to enslave labour when they cannot employ it" (p. 25). The horrible system by which the poor Indians are enslaved and made by the lash to work on the rubber concessions, far from home and freedom, is described at length. When a man buys a rubber concession from the Government he buys a kingdom, and often the concessionnaire is himself the chief magistrate of his little kingdom, so that if he is a brute his subjects can have no redress for their treatment at his hands. The rubber producer, remote from all civilising influences, is often a lawless character or a downright criminal, and there is no means of supervising him by the weak and unintelligent Government. When the author visited the rubber districts the commodity was selling in London at about ten shillings a pound, but since then, owing to the scientific cultivation of the rubber tree in the East, mainly by British enterprise, the price has fallen to less than 2s. 6d., so that it is doubtful if the wild Peruvian rubber, even with slave labour, can be produced in the future so as to compete with the British-grown article. There are, of course, good as well as bad owners, but they appear to be decidedly the exceptions. The Government is eager to secure foreign capital, but the country is hardly opened up, and the natural resources are for the most part almost inaccessible. The inducement for outsiders to invest in Peruvian development is therefore small, especially as there is everywhere a great scarcity of labour for all kinds of industry, the whole population being less than 1 per square mile. The Forest Indians, the Country of the Shepherds on the higher slopes above the tree line, the Climatology and Meteorology, are described and discussed in separate chapters. Part II. deals with the Physiography of the Peruvian Andes from the coastal desert up to the glaciers and glacial moraines of the Ice Age on the higher valleys. The volume is illustrated with many fine photographs of the grand scenery of the Andes, but a general key map of Peru would have been an advantage to such an important geographical work. GENERAL. La Question d'Orient, depuis ses Origines jusqu'à nos Jours. Par EDOUARD DRIAULT. Sixième édition. Paris: Félix Alcan, 1914. Prix 7 francs. A copy of this edition has just reached us, though, as the date shows, it was published more than three years ago. The book was then revised in order to include the events of the Balkan wars, and, though the situation has undergone many changes since, it is of great value as a presentation of the facts of the great Eastern question up to the date named. EDUCATIONAL. The Senior Geography. By A. J. HERBERTSON and F. D. HERBERTSON. Fourth Edition, revised by O. J. R. HOWARTH. Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1916. Price 2s. 6d. This volume of the Oxford Geographies has been revised by Mr. Howarth, and a number of new maps have been added. The illustrations are now very numerous, reaching a total of well over one hundred. Some of them are exceedingly clear, but perhaps the majority suffer from a tendency to overcrowding, more facts being often included than can be adequately set forth in the space available and with the means adopted. It is, we think, desirable that simplicity should be the first aim in such text illustrations, the scholar being referred to the atlas for all details. Mr. Howarth states in his preface that the present edition has been brought up to date as far as possible, having regard to the present political upheaval. The additions seem, for the most part, to deal with railway extensions, though a brief summary account is given of the changes in the Balkan peninsula as a result of the Balkan wars. Professor Herbertson's amended division of the world according to Natural Regions is included in the volume. Glancing at the book as a whole, more especially with a view to existing conditions, one is struck both by the enormous mass of material dealt with and by the omissions. The late Dr. Herbertson exercised a profound influence on geographical teaching in this country in the period prior to the war, and it is much to be regretted that he was taken from us before the period of reconstruction began. By his personal influence and his great powers of organisation he did much to establish geographical teaching on a firm basis in this country; but he himself would have been the last to claim that his text-books represented the last word. Many of the boys who used his books in the earlier days when they were still new must now be fighting in France and Flanders, or in Macedonia, Palestine, or Mesopotamia. Even those of them who worked carefully and conscientiously through the senior volume, and thus acquired an enormous amount of detailed information, must find that their school geographical knowledge did little to prepare them for the problems which are facing the world to-day. The BerlinBaghdad railway, the political destiny of Syria and of the Balkan peninsula, the questions associated with the future of Russia, the possibility of a reconstituted Poland, the control of the Adriatic, the significance of the position of the iron and coal fields on the Franco-German borderlands-all subjects of profound and pressing interest, are at most only touched upon. It is, of course, not to be expected that they could be discussed in a pre-war book in the form in which they now present themselves, but one is struck by the fact that their existence as problems scarcely emerges from the mass of detail in the book, and that from that mass of detail facts now known to thousands of homes are wholly omitted. Will geographical teaching after the war continue along the old lines, or will there be a change, a deliberate selection of essentials, a relegation of much to books of reference and atlas maps? We do not yet know, but it seems worth while to raise the question here, for it is one to which teachers will have to give their earnest attention at an early date. Even those most deeply conscious of their debt to the late Professor Herbertson will feel that they do most honour to his memory by giving it fresh and unbiassed consideration. BOOKS RECEIVED. An Old Gate of England: Rye, Romney Marsh, and the Western Cinque Ports. By A. G. BRADLEY. With many Illustrations by MARIAN E. G. BRADLEY. Crown 8vo. Pp. ix+374. London: Robert Scott, 1918. Price 6s. net Through the Russian Revolution. By CLAUDE ANET. Notes of an EyeWitness from 12th March-30th May. Illustrated by 34 Photographs. Crown 8vo. Pp. viii + 252. London: Hutchinson and Co., 1917. Price 6s. (This is a translation of the French book whose receipt was noted on p. 40.) Hill Views from Aberdeen. With Articles, Maps, Diagrams, and Scientific Notes. By G. GORDON JENKINS, M.Inst.C.E. Demy 8vo. Pp. vii+39. Aberdeen: D. Wyllie and Son, 1917. Trois Aspects de la Révolution russe, 7 mai-25 juin 1917. By ÉMILE VANDERVELDE. Crown 8vo. Pp. xvi + 202. Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1918. Price 2 fr. 50 c. Northern California, Oregon, and the Sandwich Is'ands. By CHARLES NORDHOFF. Small royal 8vo. Pp. 256. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1874. Presented by JAMES MACALISTER, Esq. Introductory Geography. By H. CLIVE BARNARD, M.A., B.Litt. Containing one Coloured Map and sixty-seven Illustrations, Maps, and Diagrams in Black and White. Crown 8vo. Pp. iv + 154. London: A. and C. Black, Ltd., 1917. Price 1s. 8d. The War and the Future. By the Right Hon. Sir ROBERT BORDEN. Being a Narrative compiled from Speeches delivered at various Periods of the War in Canada, the United States, and Great Britain. With an Introductory Letter to the Compiler, PERCY HURD. Crown 8vo. Pp. xxiv + 164. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1917. Price 2s. net. Scottish Mothers and Children. Being Report on the Physical Welfare of Mothers and Children. Scotland. Vol. III. By W. LESLIE MACKENZIE, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.P.H., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S.E., Medical Member of the Local Government Board for Scotland. Royal 8vo. Pp. xxviii + 625. With two Maps in Colour and many Illustrations. The Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, East Port, Dunfermline, 1917. Principales Cartes d'Ensemble à l'Échelle du Millionième ou à des Échelles Voisines. Par Louis Raveneau. Paris, 1917. Genetic Classification of Underground Volatile Agents. By REGINALD A. DALY. Reprinted from Economic Geology, Vol. XII., No. 6, September 1917. The Eastern Iron Trade of the Roman Empire. By WILFRED H. SCHOFF. Reprinted from the Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. xxxv., Part 111., December 1915. Colonial Reports (Annual). - Cyprus (941); Grenada (942); Jamaica (943). Statistical Abstract relating to British India from 1905-6 to 1914-15. London. Price 1s 6d. net. Thirty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American Technology, 1909-10. Washington, 1916. Report on the Administration of Delhi Province for the Year 1916-1917. Delhi. Price, Rs. 2. Publishers forwarding books for review will greatly oblige by marking the price in clear figures, especially in the case of foreign books. NEW MAPS. EUROPE. ORDNANCE SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. - The following publications were issued from 1st July to 30th September 1917 : Six-inch and larger Scale Maps. 1:2500 Scale Maps (revised), with houses stippled and with areas. Price 3s. each. Dumbartonshire (Det.). -Sheet 29 -11. *Stirlingshire. --Sheets N 10-15; N 15-8, 10; N 16-3, 5, 6, 9; N 17 -9, 12, 14; N 21-2; N 22-2, 7, 8, 16; N 23-1, 6, 14; N 29—1, 2, 11; N 30-5, 6, 11; N 35-4. *Revised on new meridian, the plan numerals therefore differ from those of the previous Revision. Note. There are no coloured editions of these Sheets, and the unrevised impressions have been withdrawn from sale. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN. - The following publication was issued from 1st to 31st October 1917 : Memoirs of the Geological Survey. --Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and the Museum of Practical Geology for 1916. Price 1s. 6d. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SCOTLAND. - The following publications were issued from 1st to 31st October 1917 : Memoirs of the Geological Survey. - The Economic Geology of the Central Coalfield of Scotland. Description of Area 11.-Including the Districts of Denny and Plean; Banknock; Carron and Grangemouth; Cumbernauld; Castlecary and Bonnybridge ; Falkirk and Slamannan; by L. W. Hinxman, B.A., F.R.S.E., C. B. Crampton, М.В., С.М., Е. M. Anderson, M.A., B.Sc., and M. Macgregor, M.A., B.Sc.; with Contributions by the late C. T. Clough, LL.D., F.R.S.E. Price 4s. 6d. ADMIRALTY CHART, SCOTLAND. Plans in the Firth of Forth. --Granton Harbour, Leith Docks, Grangemouth Docks. New edition, 1917. No. 3724. Price 2s. BARTHOLOMEW'S POCKET PLAN OF a mile. Coloured, with Index. on cloth, 2s. 6d. net. Admiralty Office, London. GLASGOW AND SUBURBS. - Scale 5 inches to New edition, 1918. Price 1s. net; mounted John Bartholomew and Co., Edinburgh. WINDERMERE AND MORECAMBE BAY. -Bartholomew's Reduced Survey Map on scale of 1 inch to a mile. Orographical colouring. New edition, 1918. Price 1s. 6d. net; mounted on cloth, 2s. 6d. net. ADMIRALTY CHARTS, BALTIC SEA. John Bartholomew and Co., Edinburgh. Baltic Sea, Eastern Sheet. - New edition, 1917. No. 28426. Price 5s. Gulf of Riga, Entrance. - New edition, 1916. No. 2263. Price 3s. EUROPEAN WAR MAPS. Admiralty Office, London. Stanford's Half-inch Map of the Battle Front. - Valenciennes, Maubeuge, Avesnes. Sheet 22. Orographical colouring. 1917. Price 3s. Edward Stanford, Ltd., London. This is another of the excellent series of maps of the Western Front. George Philip and Son, Ltd., London. A very handy, useful, and clearly printed little atlas. See also review, p. 37. ASIA. PALESTINE.-Scale 1: 168,960, or three-eighths inch to 1 mile. Engraved at Stanford's Geographical Establishment from surveys conducted for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund, by Lieutenants C. R. Conder and K. K. Kitchener, R.E., 1881. Printed, with addition and corrections at the War Office, 1916. In 2 sheets, "North" and "South." Price 7s. 6d. unmounted; mounted to fold, 15s; mounted on rollers, 15s. Geographical Section, General Staff, London, and |