II. BOOK into their hands, whatever part of it is over and above their neceffary fubfiftence, may be employed in maintaining indifferently either productive or unproductive hands. Thus, not only the great landlord or the rich merchant, but even the common workman, if his wages are confiderable, may maintain a menial fervant; or he may fometimes go to a play or a puppet-show, and fo contribute his fhare towards maintaining one fet of unproductive labourers; or he may pay fome taxes, and thus help to maintain another fet, more honourable and useful, indeed, but equally unproductive. No part of the annual produce, however, which had been originally deftined to replace a capital, is ever directed towards maintaining unproductive hands, till after it has put into motion its full complement of productive labour, or all that it could put into motion in the way in which it was employed. The workman must have earned his wages by work done, before he can employ any part of them in this manner. That part too is generally but a small one. is his fpare revenue only, of which productive labourers have feldom a great deal. They generally have fome, however; and in the payment of taxes the greatness of their number may compenfate, in some measure, the fmallness of their contribution. The rent of land and the profits of ftock are every-where, therefore, the principal fources from which unproductive hands derive their fubfiftence. Thefe are the two forts of revenue of which the owners have generally moft to fpare. They might both maintain indif It ferently III. ferently either productive or unproductive C HA P. hands. They feem, however, to have fome predilection for the latter. The expence of a great lord feeds generally more idle than induftrious people. The rich merchant, though with his capital he maintains induftrious people only, yet by his expence, that is, by the employment of his revenue, he feeds commonly the very fame fort as the great lord. The proportion, therefore, between the productive and unproductive hands, depends very much in every country upon the proportion between that part of the annual produce, which, as foon as it comes either from the ground or from the hands of the productive labourers, is deftined for replacing a capital, and that which is deftined for conftituting a revenue, either as rent, or as profit. This proportion is very different in rich from what it is in poor countries. Thus, at present, in the opulent countries of Europe, a very large, frequently the largest portion of the produce of the land, is deftined for replacing the capital of the rich and independent farmer; the other for paying his profits, and the rent of the landlord. But anciently, during the prevalency of the feudal government, a very finall portion of the produce was fufficient to replace the capital employed in cultivation. It confifted commonly in a few wretched cattle, maintained altogether by the fpontaneous produce of uncultivated land, and which might, therefore, be confidered as a part of that fpontaneous produce. It generally too belonged to the landlord, and BOOK was by him advanced to the occupiers of the II. land. All the rest of the produce properly belonged to him too, either as rent for his land, or as profit upon this paltry capital. The occupiers of land were generally bondmen, whose perfons and effects were equally his property. Those who were not bondmen were tenants at will, and though the rent which they paid was often nominally little more than a quit-rent, it really amounted to the whole produce of the land. Their lord could at all times command their labour in peace, and their service in war. Though they lived at a distance from his house, they were equally dependant upon him as his retainers who lived in it. But the whole produce of the land undoubtedly belongs to him, who can difpofe of the labour and fervice of all those whom it maintains. In the present state of Europe, the fhare of the landlord feldom exceeds a third, fometimes not a fourth part of the whole produce of the land. The rent of land, however, in all the improved parts of the country, has been tripled and quadrupled fince thofe ancient times; and this third or fourth part of the annual produce is, it seems, three or four times greater than the whole had been before. In the progrefs of improvement, rent, though it increases in proportion to the extent, dimi. nishes in proportion to the produce of the land. In the opulent countries of Europe, great capitals are at prefent employed in trade and manufactures. In the ancient ftate, the little trade that was stirring, and the few homely and coarfe manu III. manufactures that were carried on, required but CHAP. very fmall capitals. Thefe, however, must have yielded very large profits. The rate of intereft was no-where less that ten per cent., and their profits must have been fufficient to afford this great interest. At prefent the rate of interest, in the improved parts of Europe, is no-where higher than fix per cent. and in fome of the moft improved it is fo low as four, three, and two per cent. Though that part of the revenue of the inhabitants which is derived from the profits of ftock is always much greater in rich than in poor countries, it is because the ftock is much greater in proportion to the flock the profits are generally much less. That part of the annual produce, therefore, which, as foon as it comes either from the ground, or from the hands of the productive labourers, is deftined for replacing a capital, is not only much greater in rich than in poor countries, but bears a much greater proportion to that which is immediately deftined for conftituting a revenue either as rent or as profit. The funds deftined for the maintenance of productive labour, are not only much greater in the former than in the latter, but bear a much greater proportion to those which, though they may be employed to maintain either productive or unproductive hands, have generally a predilection for the latter. The proportion between thofe different funds neceffarily determines in every country the general character of the inhabitants as to industry or idlenefs. We are more induftrious than our forefathers; 4 II. BOOK forefathers; becaufe in the prefent times the funds deftined for the maintenance of industry, are much greater in proportion to thofe which are likely to be employed in the maintenance of idleness, than they were two or three centuries ago. Our ancestors were idle for want of a fufficient encouragement to industry. It is better, fays the proverb, to play for nothing, than to work for nothing. In mercantile and manufacturing towns, where the inferior ranks of people are chiefly maintained by the employment of capital, they are in general induftrious, fober, and thriving; as in many English, and in most Dutch towns. In thofe towns which are principally fupported by the conftant or occafional refidence of a court, and in which the inferior ranks of people are chiefly maintained by the spending of revenue, they are in general idle, diffolute, and poor; as at Rome, Verfailles, Compeigne, and Fontainbleau. If you except Rouen and Bourdeaux, there is little trade or industry in any of the parliament towns of France; and the inferior ranks of people, being chiefly maintained by the expence of the members of the courts of juftice, and of those who come to plead before them, are in general idle and poor. The great trade of Rouen and Bourdeaux feems to be altogether the effect of their fituation. Rouen is neceffarily the entrepôt of almost all the goods which are brought either from foreign countries, or from the maritime provinces of France, for the confumption of the great city of Paris. Bourdeaux is in the fame manner the entrepôt of the wines |