the expedition was to ascertain the possibility of measuring a meridional arc from the Seven Isles to the South Cape, and the explorers were pleased to find that these glaciers present no obstacle to such an undertaking, for though they ascend nearly to the summits of a chain of mountains 2300 feet high, they are free from crevasses and easy to traverse. Finding at Recherche Bay that it was too late in the season for geological investigations, the party sailed to Ice Fiord, the neighbourhood of which, as also the peninsula lying between Ice Fiord and Bel Sound, is one of the most interesting regions of the globe, owing to the numerous and magnificent glaciers which here descend into the sea and the grand outlines of the mountains. Deep layers of fossil plants of different ages bear evidence that this country was formerly clothed with a vegetation rivalling the flora of the most favoured parts of the Temperate zone. Rich collections brought home by former explorers have been described by M. Oswald Heer and M. A. G. Nathorst. These fossil plants are found, not only at the sea-level, but also in the strata forming the summit of one of the highest mountains, about 3660 feet, lying between Ice Fiord and Bel Sound, to which M. Nathorst gave the name of Nordenskiöld. These strata having been examined but very superficially, it was the task of the expedition to fill up this gap in the geological record of the country. It was found that the elevated plateaus are paved with schists and argillaceous marl which contains impressions of Tertiary plants in an excellent state of preservation. A fine collection was brought home and deposited in the Academy of Sciences. On August 13th the vessel left Ice Fiord and sailed up the west coast to Cloven Cliff, not far from the 80th parallel. Between latitudes 79° and 80° the slopes of snow were coloured red, but whether this effect is produced by the same species of small alga as grows in Switzerland and Greenland has not been ascertained. The expedition continued northwards as far as lat. 80° 45', took photographs of the glaciers at Red Bay and Recherche Bay, and returned to Tromsö on September 17th.

Effect of Snow on the Temperature of the Ground.-Interesting observations have been made at the observatory of Katherinenburg. In the winter of 1886-7 it was found that the temperature of the ground at a depth of 14 inches was warmer when covered with snow by more than 10° Fahr. in January, and at a depth of 31 inches in March, while in April it was 6° warmer at a depth of 63 inches. In the following winter the cold in the four coldest months was more severe than in 1886-7, the thermometer falling 5° lower, but the temperature of the ground at a depth of 14 inches was 7° higher. Where, however, the surface of the ground was unprotected by snow the cold penetrated downwards very quickly. In countries, such as Siberia and Canada, where the snow lies for a long time, the mean temperature of the ground is 9° F., and in some parts even more than 18° warmer, under a covering of snow.-Verhand. der Gesell. für Erdkunde zu Berlin, Bd. xvii. Nos. 8 and 9.

Luminous Clouds.-In Nature, November 20th, Mr. O. Jesse gives the result of observations of luminous clouds in the neighbourhood of Berlin. In June 1885, he noticed them at Steglitz, at about 9.50 P.M., local time. "The north-western and northern sky was covered, to the height of about 20°, with a layer of bright cirrus-like clouds, which reached from about NW. to NNE. The lower zone was without lustre, and had a yellowish appearance; higher up there was a strip, several degrees in breadth, which shone with an extremely beautiful, white-gleaming, silver-like light; above this strip was another like it, but not quite so brilliant, of a bluish tint. The light of the central zone was comparable to the light of the nearly full moon, when it stands at sunset at about 10°, more over the eastern

horizon." This phenomenon recurred several times during the following weeks, but disappeared towards the end of July. The time of appearance was, as a rule, fifteen to twenty minutes, but sometimes forty minutes, after sunset. In December and January luminous clouds appear in the southern Hemisphere, from about 48° to 60°, but no information has been received with regard to their appearance near the Equator. Seeing that their height diminishes as the sun sinks, they must be attributed to direct illumination from the sun, and, on this assumption, Mr. Jesse calculated their distance from the surface of the earth as 50 to 60 kilomètres (31 to 37 miles). In 1887, by means of photographs, taken simultaneously at different stations, he determined the height on three occasions to be 75, 81, and 82 kilomètres (47, 50, and 51 miles) respectively. The observations have established the fact that these clouds have in general a very rapid movement from north-east to south-west, though occasionally they move, much more slowly, in the opposite direction. Since first noticed they have considerably waned. In 1890 they displayed their full brilliancy on three nights only--their altitude being at the same time much less than in former years. They have also appeared less frequently before midnight, at which time they are more highly luminous.

Oceanic Circulation.-Le Globe, 5ème série, Tome 1er, contains a mémoire by M. Emile Chaix on this subject. The author describes the methods adopted to ascertain the existence and velocities of currents, and enunciates the theories that have been propounded, both in ancient and modern times, to elucidate the process of oceanic circulation. Finally, he states the causes most generally accepted at the present day to be: (1) differences of density, particularly those due to temperature, which, owing to the action of gravity, produce a slow progression of the waters of the Polar seas towards the Equator, this motion being confined to the depths of the ocean; (2) the prevailing winds, which cause perceptible currents on the surface and, after long continuance, make their influence felt to a certain depth below the surface; and (3) a movement of compensation to which may in general be attributed the residuary phenomena not accounted for by the direct action of the wind, and which gives the key to a host of apparent anomalies.

MISCELLANEOUS.

In the Revue de Géographie (October and November 1890), a list of books, pamphlets, and articles relating to Senegambia and the French Sudan is now being published.

A résumé by Professor Ratzel of the Scientific results of Mr. Stanley's Expedition will be found in Petermann's Mitt., Bd. xxxvi. No. 11. It is divided into three chapters on the configuration of the country, the snows and glaciers of the mountains, and the hydrography of the region traversed, respectively.

of Australia.

Sir Thomas Elder has provided the funds for another Expedition into the Interior Its destination is the country to the north and north-west of Lake Amadeus, where extensive pasture lands are supposed to exist. This is the fourth exploring party that Sir T. Elder has equipped.-Petermann's Mitt., Bd. xxxvi. No. 11.

In the Revue de Géographie, October and November 1890, M. Léon Vignols has given a short historical narrative of the enterprises of France in Madagascar during the period from 1674 to 1750. He concludes that France during this interval never abandoned her claims on this island, but, on the contrary, maintained regular communication with it and endeavoured to develop the country.

Petermann's Mitt., Bd. xxxvi. No. 11, gives the following results of Professor Heilprin's, Measurements in Mexico :-Peak of Orizaba, or Citlaltepetl, 18,205 feet (17,876); Popocatepetl, 17,523 (17,778); Iztaccihuatl, 16,960 (16,744); Nevado de Toluca, 19,454 (14,990). The figures in brackets indicate the heights given by former measurements. The town of Mexico, as shown by the levellings made for the railway, lies 123 feet below the elevation, 7470 feet, deduced from former surveys.

The Commission for the delimitation of the boundary between the British Territory and Alaska, under the leadership of J. H. Turner, has encamped on the Porcupine River. It has been ascertained that the station, Rampart House, supposed hitherto to stand on British soil, lies 20 miles to the west of the 141st meridian, which marks the frontier in that region.-Petermann's Mitt., xxxvi. 11.

M. de Brettes, whose journey in the Chaco has been noticed in the Magazine, is about to set out for Grand Bassam, with the object of making an expedition to Barua on Lake Tsad by way of Kong, Say on the Upper Niger, Sokoto, and Zinder. The aim of the expedition is to open fresh avenues for trade in the region lately placed under French protection by the Anglo-French Treaty.—Revue de Géographie, November 1890.

Messrs. Russell and Kerr (vide vol. vi., p. 497) have ascertained that Mt. Elias undoubtedly stands in the territory of the United States. Their measurements show that it is not the highest summit of North America, an honour which belongs to Mt. Wrangel. The following figures are taken from Petermann's Mitt., Bd. xxxvi. No. 11, those in brackets being the measurements of former travellers. Mt. Elias 13,500 feet (19,500); Mt. Cook 10,250 (16,000); Mt. Vancouver, 9,400 (13,100).

The Karl Ritter Stiftung intends to equip an Expedition to the West Coast of Greenland. Dr. E. von Drygalski is to be the leader, and Herr O. Baschin will accompany him at his own expense. The head of the Umanak Fjord, 70° 30′ N. lat., has been chosen for the site of a station, where Herr Baschin will carry out a series of meteorological observations, while Dr. von Drygalski makes excursions to investigate the conditions of the ice, the movement of the glaciers, etc., with the assistance of a third scientist yet to be chosen. The expedition will set out in the spring of 1891, and will remain twelve months at the fjord.- Deutsche Geograph. Blätter, Bd. xiii. Heft 4.

NEW BOOKS.

Across East African Glaciers. An Account of the First Ascent of Kilimanjaro. By Dr. HANS MEYER. Translated from the German by E. H. S. CALDER. With 40 Illustrations and 3 Maps. London: George Philip and Son, 1891. Pp. 397. Price 32s.

This handsome volume of travel is a worthy and permanent record of Dr. Hans Meyer's successful feat. He and his companion, Herr Purtscheller, spent from twelve to sixteen days between the altitudes of 15,000 and 20,000 ft., during which time they made four ascents of Kibo and three of Mawenzé (the twin-peaks of Kilima-njaro), "reached the culminating peak of the mountain (Kibo), ascertained the existence of a great crater at the summit, discovered the first African glaciers, and made a tolerably thorough survey of the higher altitudes." Such a result, after a former failure on Dr. Meyer's part, was in the highest degree satisfactory.

The greater part of the book is concerned with the wearisome recapitulation of the long-familiar caravan experiences between the Zanzibar Coast and Kilima-njaro. We suppose this record was inevitable, but Dr. Meyer might have spared us some of the details. In the introductory chapter we have an account of “Kilima-njaro in the Past," in the course of which the author passes some severe strictures on some of his predecessors in the field of exploration. Passing over the events of the march to and from his goal, the most interesting incidents of the expedition were, of course, those experienced in the plucky ascent of the mountain. In the last chapter-which is the most valuable of all-Dr. Meyer gives an admirable summary of the physical geography of the Kilima-njaro region and its commercial prospects. As he was the first explorer of the higher altitudes, we learn much that is new to us. During the short time he was there he accomplished a great deal of excellent topographical work, and his observations are valuable.

There are, however, one or two points on which Dr. Meyer appears to speak without sufficient forethought or consideration. The behaviour of the clouds, for instance, was, according to Dr. Meyer, somewhat erratic. He speaks frequently of the "upper trade winds,” when presumably he means the Equatorial return-current, and he does not take into sufficient account the local influence which such an immense mountain-mass as Kilima-njaro cannot fail to exercise on the movements of the atmosphere-that is to say, if his descriptions apply to the higher strata. He persists throughout the book in calling the snow-cap the "ice-cap,”—a term which is scarcely permissible in the sense in which he mostly applies it. Other expressions, of which "the lee of the wind" is the worst example (p. 307), may be the fault of the translator, who, however, has done Dr. Meyer excellent justice on the whole, and has produced a very readable translation. Dr. Meyer's comments on the commercial prospects in Eastern Equatorial Africa are worthy of attention, though too pessimistic in tone. He gives a well-merited rebuke to those enthusiasts who have misled the public by describing the region as a "second India." But surely he is very far from uttering words of wisdom when he says:"Instead of wasting time and money in trying to open up the interior by railways and other unsuitable means, let us confine our operations to the coast, and leave the natives to bring their produce to us in their own timehonoured fashion" (p. 340). This is the conclusion to which Dr. Meyer arrives, but we fear it is a very hasty one. It is, in fact, no new policy which he advocates, but that which has regulated the relations between Europeans and Africa for over 300 years! Nothing further need be said to argue its absurdity. At the same time, it is only fair to Dr. Meyer to add that he is in favour of Europeans occupying the healthier upland or mountain regions in proximity to the coasts.

The maps and illustrations to the book are perfect in their way, and greatly add to its attractiveness. A valuable set of appendices discuss the scientific collections and observations of the expedition, whilst a useful bibliography is given of the literature dealing more especially with the Kilima-njaro region.

A word of praise is due to the publishers for the beautiful and artistic appearance of the volume.

Modern Discoveries on the Site of Ancient Ephesus. By the late J. T. WOOD, F.S.A. (By-Paths of Bible Knowledge," xiv.) London: Religious Tract Society. 1890.

This small volume is condensed from the late Mr. Wood's larger work published in 1877 on his Discoveries at Ephesus. It falls naturally into four divisions :— (1) The Historical Sketch of Ephesus, forming the introductory chapter; (2) The

Site and History (with anecdotes and incidents) of the explorations in search of the Temple of Diana, which occupied Mr. Wood from 1863 to 1874, and cost £16,000, provided by the British Museum, of which £12,000 was spent on clearing out the Temple site; (3) The Description of the Temple according to Mr. Wood's theories; and (4) The Christian Antiquities of Ephesus, in the sixth chapter, occupying about 9 pages. The first two and last of these divisions form interesting popular reading, and the editor or condenser has done his work well, giving the reader a clear and popular rendering of the original work, beyond which there was little temptation to travel. The description of the famous Temple, however, is the portion that will attract the readers to whom the volumes of the series are specially addressed, and unless they can control Mr. Wood's theories by wider knowledge, they will be misled. He assumes (p. 70) that Pliny's dimension of the width of the Temple-220 feet-is quite incorrect, that Pliny speaks of only 100 columns, of which 36 were sculptured, and (p. 76) that he says only 27 were the gifts of princes. Now Pliny's words are: "Universo templo longitudo est ccccxxv pedum latitudo ducentorum viginti columnæ centum viginti septem a singulis regibus factæ 1x pedem altitudine ex iis xxxvi cælatæ una a Scopa." Reading this, even without the modern punctuation, it seems hardly possible to suppose that Pliny meant the viginti septem to be disjoined from the centum. It is an illustration, however, of how a text may be twisted to support a preconceived hypothesis, that Mr. Wood makes this to mean there were 100 columns in all, of which 27 were each the gift of a king. The author of this résumé does not hint at the usual reading of Pliny's text, much less refer to the restoration of the original, from Mr. Wood's own data and in exact accordance with Pliny's text, by the late James Fergusson (Transactions R. I. Brit. Archit., 1877 and 1883), in which he shows that the length and breadth of the stylobate of the Temple were 425 and 220 Greek feet respectively, and the columns 127-just as Pliny says while other features of his restoration seem superior in probability and taste to those of Mr. Wood. In works of this sort it is surely desirable that the whole state of a question as it stands should be stated, and not the mere ex parte assertion of a single theorist, however eminent, without a hint as to serious divergencies, either from evidences or from the opinions of other qualified scientists.

With the Beduins: A Narrative of Journeys and Adventures in Unfrequented Parts of Syria. By GRAY HALL. London: T. Fisher Unwin. 1891.

The author, accompanied by his wife, made three separate journeys through Syria. They were fortunate in getting the same dragoman to accompany them on each occasion, and he seems to have proved a most valuable assistant in their explorations. They visited the ruins of Palmyra in 1889, a journey which is never free from danger from the predatory tribes who roam about that region. The Governor of Damascus refused them an escort of soldiers, but as they were determined to go they made an arrangement with a Beduin Sheik to accompany them as guide and protector. They were the first Europeans to see the stream of fresh water which has been discovered among the ruins of Palmyra. It runs in a channel of stone, a few feet under the surface of the ground. This is a most important discovery, as hitherto travellers had to bring a supply of drinking water on camels. The Arabs are now searching for other supplies of water, with some prospect of success, as it is reasonable to suppose that a great city like "Tadmor in the Wilderness" could not have existed without a good supply of water. The travellers also saw a fine piece of sculpture which had just been unearthed, and