elucidated by a simple mechanical process; and I feel convinced that, though it may challenge the criticism of gentlemen exclusively interested in particular parts of the continent, the student of African geography will be prepared to indorse its general accuracy.

As a rough and ready means of testing the general accuracy of my map, I selected a scheme of colouring that illustrates three broad generalisations, namely:-(1) areas of highest resistance against the European domination, which are coloured in four gradations of blue; (2) areas of highest relative value to the European Powers, which are coloured in five gradations of a reddish-brown; and (3) the intermediate or transitional regions, which are coloured in two gradations of yellow. It should be added, that these generalisations were drawn after the percentages of value were laid down on the map, because they only then became apparent.

Quite apart from the percentages of value that have been given to these regions, respectively, a glance at the map will, I think, reveal the approximate progressive value of African lands at the present day. In order to express this in a graphic manner it was essential to adopt the simple method of "contour-lines." It does not at all follow that every square mile of land within a given periphery is exactly of the value given, but only approximately. Had I attempted to define areas of equal value, I should have had to discard the present graphic method, and to have adopted one, the result of which would have closely resembled a geological chart. The method which I have selected, however, expresses approximately the relative value of the lands themselves, and their progressive value in relation to their geographical position.

It will be observed, for instance, that the highest values lie in contiguity to the coast and to the great river-highways leading into the Interior, whilst the lowest values coincide with areas most remote from the coast, or over which climatic or political conditions are in the highest degree inimical to their development. It will further be observed that the salient portions of the peripheries indicate the directions in which, in the case of the highest values (brown), the development of African lands is likely to be profitable; whilst, in the case of areas of low value (blue), they have a precisely contrary signification. Where, also, the lines of graduated values lie close together, the presence of some powerful, political or physical, obstacle is clearly intended to be signalised. These abrupt, or steep, gradients are conspicuous in the neighbourhood of desert regions; and they are the more abrupt if, as in the case of South-East Africa, valuable regions lie in contiguity. The outstanding value of South Africa is, of course, due to its relatively healthy climate, its organised political institutions, its strong base on the coast, and its rich natural resources; whilst the low value given to the fertile regions in the Upper Nile basin is chiefly due to hostile political factors, which at any day may be suddenly reversed.

A free reading of my map should, consequently, illustrate the lines of least resistance against the European domination in Africa. Each characteristic natural region has its strategic base on the coast in the possession of one or more of the European Powers, and from which operations in the

Interior can be most profitably directed. Rapid and easy transit to the coast is, in fact, the first essential condition for the profitable development of remote African lands; and it would mutually benefit the Powers if all the great river-highways were internationalised.

In other respects the map should explain itself. Space forbids my entering into a discussion of all the data that have determined the final result of my investigation. Indeed, to convince the reader that no line. on the map has been drawn at hazard, but only after careful study of local conditions, I should have to give a complete account of physical and political phenomena in Africa-a task I have already performed in my book on The Development of Africa, which should meet the requirements of my critics.

A word in conclusion. Since the present investigation is somewhat novel in conception, and may be based on false principles, I shall feel indebted for any criticism that may be offered. If, on the other hand, it should prove the forerunner of similar inquiries, it would be well to introduce a new term in place of "contour-lines," as the method of expressing the relative, progressive value (political and physical) of a given region. My colleague, Mr. W. A. Taylor, has suggested two words, either of which, in default of a better term, might be adopted. These are:-isochrestic (from loos equal, and xpηotós useful) and chrestographic (from Xpnorós useful, and ypápw I write). The latter is more euphonious, if less scientific. Instead of speaking of "contour-lines," which is liable to mislead one, it were better to employ such a term as chrestographic curves," or its equivalent.

EXPLORATIONS IN BRITISH EAST AFRICA.

THE pioneers of the Imperial British East Africa Company have recently been accomplishing excellent work in the topographical survey of the country, in opening up new roads from the Coast, and in founding stations. We have been favoured by the Company with two reports, accompanied by original maps: the one by Captain Lugard, the other by Mr. Jackson. These reports carry a thin thread of topographical knowledge from the East Coast, by way of the Sabaki Valley, westwards to the Victoria Nyanza.

Captain Lugard's report, dated Mombaza, 16th May 1890, deals. with an expedition under his command, which, starting from the Coast on 21st December 1889, eventually penetrated as far as Muchako's, in Ukamba. An interesting feature of his expedition was the attempt to make use of animal-transport in place of caravan-porters. He started with three camels, four mules, and fifteen donkeys of a local breed. The caravan itself comprised eleven Persians, four headmen, ten Askari, three Madrasees, and ninety porters.

The mules and donkeys, not having been provided with proper saddlery and gear, suffered terribly from girth-galls and sore backs. The men were not trained muleteers; they did not know how to load and saddle and tend their animals. But Captain Lugard points out that

capable muleteers can be obtained in any number from Persia. He recommends the gear used for mules, ponies, and donkeys in India, which, from long experience, has been found serviceable, and that a veterinary surgeon should be sent out with a stock of medicine. His opinion is that the indigenous donkey and imported mules might thrive in the country, the latter being preferable. A mule can carry four men's loads, whilst one man can attend to three mules or twelve loads, thus saving considerably in transport. Camels, which carry six men's loads, would do well in many parts, and could be employed on certain stages where fodder for mules is scarce; and elephants would be extremely useful in conveying steamer-pieces, railway-plant, and other indivisible loads. Captain Lugard appears to believe in the domestication of the African elephant. Absence of forage is the greatest drawback to elephant-transport; but in the Sabaki Valley the dense forest tract affords excellent forage for elephants, great numbers visiting the district at a particular season.

The first station which Captain Lugard founded was at Makangeni, on the Sabaki, about 83 miles distant from Mombaza, and at the junction of the routes to that place and Malindi. The animals were then in excellent condition; but, as the work in cutting a way for them through the jungle had been very severe up to Makangeni, it was decided to abandon animal-transport and to rest satisfied with the experiment so far. Porters were therefore enlisted to supply their places.

The country between Mombaza and Makangeni is for the most part hilly. The intermediate country (some 50 miles) is difficult for railway, but offers no impediments to animal-transport. Water is obtainable in the driest season at distances suitable for caravans, except between Fuladoyo and Makangeni. Large areas are cultivated by the natives, whose villages are frequent and large. The soil is for the most part poor, being generally of a red marl, and large areas of forest are still unreclaimed. There is sufficient grass all along the route for fodder, but of an inferior quality. The crops are mostly mahindi and mahele, one kind of kundi (bean), and a little mahoga (cassava), dhal, wimbi, etc. In an ordinary season there should be an ample food-supply along this route, and fuel is abundant.

Having established a garrison at Makangeni, Captain Lugard left for Muchako's by way of the Sabaki Valley. He reports as follows on the adaptability of this route to caravan-traffic:

"Its great drawbreak at present lies in the fact that the whole stretch of country is entirely uninhabited, and food is therefore unobtainable. This difficulty it was the object of my journey to meet, so that by building forts at intervals for the protection of the road, and establishing villages near them on sites suitable to cultivation, a population should grow up, who would till the land, and produce large quantities of grain for sale. While the route has this temporary disadvantage, it has the far more than counterbalancing advantage of a continuous and good water-supply, and the abundant fish in the river afford food to the men, and render the route very popular. The very fact of the land being uninhabited is in one sense an advantage, since it becomes the property absolutely of the first occupier without purchase or dispute. It therefore offers a special facility for the introduc

tion of Persian or Indian colonists, or the settlement of villages of Watoro, who have worked out their freedom, or other such special protégés of the Government.

"The line is cut in many places at right angles by the 'Masai roads,' or warpaths of the Masai, which they traverse (especially in this, the rainy season) in their raids into the country north of the Sabaki to capture cattle, etc. Their bands are of considerable strength, and, being abroad purely for the purpose of fighting, are generally hostile to all they may meet. One road only is of much importance, but all are used more or less frequently. These remarks are meant to apply to the whole route as far as Nzoi, and not merely to the Sabaki portion of it. From Makangeni continuously for some twenty or thirty miles the country offers very great inducements for cultivation. The soil is very rich (mostly that called in India 'Black Cotton'), and the large openings in the forest, clothed with most excellent grass, would at once furnish either the best of soil for cultivation, or fodder and grazing-grounds for cattle or transport animals. In the body of the road-chart itself, I have given full details of the whole route as regards soil, etc., and in the margin a short description of the special points connected with each Station, and the reasons which led me to select it. Beyond this belt of low-lying rich soil the country is for the most part scrub-forest, and the soil very bad. Undulating quartz-hills alternate with stretches of hard, red, marly sand, growing little but thorns and cactus. Throughout the whole route, however, glades intervene at intervals, and these are of the same rich soil, and covered with the same rich grass. The geological formation consists uniformly of a slaty or shaly rock near to, and for some distance beyond, Makangeni. This rock is especially noticeable in slabs of some 3 feet long, 18 in. by 12 in. (roughly), which are easily levered out of the ground. I utilised it in building the fort at Makangeni, and it would form admirable building-stone. Beyond this the country is all of a granite formation, and the bed of the river of sheer rock. Associated with the granite are great quantities of crystalline quartz, and in some localities this quartz bears every resemblance to that which usually yields gold. Limestone also alternates with the granite, and is in close proximity. I have found fossils in this limestone. At two points-one (if not both) singularly adapted to the working of metals, especially as there was a considerable water-fall in the bed of the river-I found copper in its sulphate form contained in malachite and quartz. I trust this may prove a valuable discovery for the Company, there being in close proximity a fall of water, so as to render mining operations feasible, and a waterway to the Coast. Mr. Wilson also found plumbago. The specimens I have brought together, with some samples of what I believe to be an extremely rich iron ore, I will send to England, that an expert's opinion may be obtained on them. The timber of the forest-land along the Sabaki is worthless. The trees are almost entirely of a spongy-wooded class, such as the baobab, etc., or scraggy and dwarfed acacia and other thorn-trees. The former compose most of the jungle, and are useless for timber, and almost useless even for fuel. But along the margin of the river there grows a tree with fine white timber, very straight, and sometimes with a diameter of two feet and more. Here, too, at various points there are enormous acacias, with fine boles of three or four feet diameter, of course yielding excessively hard timber. Both would be useful for local building purposes. The river, I consider, should be navigable for canoes at all seasons up to the site of No. 2 Stockade, and this mode of conveyance would afford a very great saving. The first desideratum is to cut a road through the jungle feasible for animals, and planned to touch the river only at certain points, instead of following its windings round every bend, which will greatly reduce the distance and the difficulties of the route."

Captain Lugard's caravan was absent for about six months, during which time the transport-animals were taken over 80 miles, roads were cut, and six forts were built between the Coast and Muchako's.

Mr. Jackson's report takes up the thread of our narrative at Muchako's. He left that place, on 6th August 1889, with 535 men and 22 donkeys, and set out for the Victoria Nyanza. His report is too voluminous to give in extenso, otherwise we should have been glad to have availed ourselves of so valuable an itinerary of travel. The map which accompanies it is carefully drawn and full of detail, though its value is discounted by the absence of latitudes and longitudes.

The route taken by Mr. Jackson's caravan was through Kikuyu, past the northern end of Lake Naivasha, and viâ Sotik and Lumbwa to Kavirondo.

The whole country between the Ukambani hills and the afforested lands of Kikuyu is described as an extensive, undulating, treeless, and grassy plain abounding in game. It was formerly occupied by the Masai, who were, however, driven away by the Wakamba and Wakikuyu. There are immense tracts of undulating land which, having been cleared, are now under careful cultivation. Indian corn, mtama, wimbi, sweet potatoes, yams, bazi, beans, bananas, and sugar-cane, all flourish in abundant quantities, and are very cheap. The natives keep a few cattle, but sheep and goats are more plentiful. Kikuyu, indeed, appears to be a land of plenty, and to be densely populated. "The soil is so rich," says Mr. Jackson, "that everything flourishes most luxuriantly, and I should imagine that most of our English fruits and vegetables would thrive. Tobacco of a superior quality to that grown on the Coast and in other parts is cultivated in large quantities and is very cheap." The natives are of an excitable disposition. They all speak Masai, besides a language of their own, and most of them adopt the Masai dress. They have no dominant chiefs, and their government appears to be patriarchal in character.

Leaving the fertile plains of Kikuyu behind, the caravan passed through the difficult forest-lands, staying for a time at Mianzini to collect a stock of food, and, with varying fortunes incidental to such a march, eventually entered Kavirondo, and reached the Victoria Nyanza (26th October). Kwa Sundu (now known as Mumiya's) was reached on 7th November.

"Here," says Mr. Jackson, "we found a Waganda messenger with letters from Stokes and Mwanga, asking us to go to his assistance. On the 9th I sent off answers to these letters, and sent three of our own men (all Waganda) with them, and decided to give them thirty days to get there and back in. Mumiya, the chief of the town and district, gave us a large corner of his village to camp in, as it is the custom of the country for caravans to camp inside. In some respects it has its advantages, in others it has its drawbacks, but by going inside, provided it is clean, you have a certain amount of hold on the people and their belongings. Mumiya is a young man, and is chief of the district only in name, as he has little or no influence outside his own village, and but little even in that. He, however, is most anxious to keep on good terms with the Company, and if a European were sent to back him up and give him good advice, he might be made something of, and the people would soon acknowledge him as their chief. Soon after our arrival our