Friday, 21st August. 1. A discussion on the subject of Acclimatisation, introduced by Dr. Robert W. Felkin, F.R.S.E. 2. Dr. Phené.—Changes in Coast-Lines. 3. J. E. B. Meakin.-Morocco as a Field for Geographers. 4. Miss E. M. Clerke.-The Aborigines of Western Australia. 5. Colonel Holdich.—The Application of Indian Survey Methods to Africa. 6. Colonel Tanner.-Bar-Subtense Survey. 7. Gwyn Morris.-Commercial Geography. Saturday, 22d August. 1. Lecture by Mr. Ravenstein on the Series of Maps illustrating his Presidential Address. 2. H. T. Crook.-The Ordnance Survey. 3. The Librarian of the Public Library of Cardiff contributed some remarks on a collection of local maps. Monday, 24th August. 1. E. Delmar Morgan.-Antarctic Exploration. 2. J. Thomson.-Photography applied to Exploration. 3. Harry D. Buckle.-Journeys in the Lake Ngami Region. 4. Mrs. French-Sheldon.-A Visit to Kilima-njaro and Lake Chala. 5. Dr. Schlichter.-South-West Africa. Tuesday, 25th August. 1. Lord Lamington.—The Siam Border-land. 2. Dr. Bell.-Mineral Resources of Colorado. 3. A. J. Montefiore.-The Physical and Industrial Geography of Florida. 4. Mr. Dobson.-The Volta River. 5. Mrs. Bishop (Miss Isabella L. Bird).-The Bakhtiari Country and the Karun River. 6. Colonel Tanner.-Physical Aspects of the Himalaya and Notes on the Inhabitants. 7. The Proposed formation of a Topographical Society at Cardiff. The purely technical papers in the above list were all contributed by well-known authorities, and were of high value, if somewhat above the heads of the audience. Mr. John Coles, the Royal Geographical Society's Instructor, submitted an admirable paper on The Art of Observing. The different methods suitable to explorers of fixing positions by astronomical observations were exhibited and explained, and the manner in which they may be taken, so as to eliminate errors, was pointed out. The latter part of the paper dealt with surveying, fixing heights by barometer, route-surveying in a jungle or forest; and it concluded with some remarks on Mercator's projection in cases where it was required to lay down bearings, etc., or plot a route. The author also called attention to the fact that such instruments as the plane table and prismatic compass might be used with advantage in schools, and that such practical teaching in the field could not fail to give pupils a more intimate knowledge of the principle on which maps are constructed and surveys carried out than they could gain in any other way. Colonel Tanner, one of the most distinguished officers of the Indian Survey, read two papers. That on Bar-Subtense Survey, a system carried out by himself during the past four years in the Himalaya, and recommended for adoption in the case of isolated surveys of unexplored countries, was too technical a paper for his audience. His account of the Physical Aspects and Inhabitants of the Himalaya was, however, of more general interest. We hope to publish this paper in a subsequent issue. Colonel Holdich, another well-known authority, dealt with The Application of Indian Geographical Survey Methods to Africa. An outline of the methods proposed may be summarised as (1) the adoption of a rapid system of triangulation along the most important lines for first survey; and (2) the extension of a graphic system of mapping from these lines by means chiefly of native labour. The most important lines for a primary survey in Africa are, of course, those of international boundaries, few of which have been determined by permanent natural features. This scheme, based on experience in Asia, was propounded by Colonel Holdich in a manner that was theoretically convincing; but any attempt to put it into practice would in all probability be a failure, owing to physical and political obstacles, such as climatic risks, the uncertain character of native aid, and international rivalries in Africa. Another paper on the subject of new methods in surveying was that contributed by Mr. John Thomson, who has had considerable practical experience as a traveller and photographer. His recommendations in regard to Photography Applied to Exploration received the support of Colonel Tanner, among others, and promise to be of the utmost value in the detailed mapping of surface-features. Dr. Hugh R. Mill's suggestive paper on The Homology of Continents greatly interested his audience. He explained the homology, or "family likeness" of the continents, not only as to form or structure, but also as to the part they play in modifying the circulation of oceans and air, and to the distribution of climate. The typical form of continent was described in detail by means of a model; and the deviations from the typical form in each continent were explained by means of orographical and climatological maps. Another excellent essay in Physical Geography was that contributed by Mr. Miller Christy, with the object of eliciting an answer to the question: Why are the Prairies Treeless? The main cause he asserted to be the prevalence of vast prairie-fires, which for generations past have swept over the prairies almost year by year, destroying the trees and preventing the growth of others. Mr. Miller Christy's arguments in this respect are set forth at some length in the abstract of his paper, which we shall publish next month. Dr. Phené contributed a lengthy paper on Changes in Coast-Lines. The subject of Antarctic Exploration was introduced by Mr. Delmar Morgan, who gave a succinct account of the recent movement in Australia for the exploration of the Antarctic Regions. The Antarctic Committee of the British Association was not reappointed this year, its objects having been superseded by the more energetic and practical steps taken in the Australian Colonies in conjunction with Baron Oscar Dickson and Baron Nordenskiöld. On the return of this expedition, which, owing to its limited funds, can only hope to fulfil the duties of a pioneer, there is room for hope that the British Association, with the support of the leading scientific societies, may again petition the British Government to send out an expedition capable of following up the discoveries of Sir James Clark Ross. Dr. Robert W. Felkin introduced the subject of Acclimatisation in a paper which we hope to publish in a subsequent number of the Magazine. His address did not elicit a fruitful discussion, because, as so constantly happens on such occasions as this, the speakers did not confine their remarks to the subject of the paper, but wandered off into inconsequent and personal narration. There were several papers dealing with original exploration, and of these Mrs. Bishop's account of the Bakhtiari Country was by far the most important. Mrs. Bishop spoke for the greater part of an hour, merely from notes, but without the slightest hesitation. Her subject-matter and its manner of treatment were, in her hands, a model of excellence. We avoid further reference to it because Mrs. Bishop is to read a similar paper to our Society in January next. Mrs. French-Sheldon's account of her Visit to Kilima-njaro interested a large audience; its only claim to geographical importance was, however, the few remarks offered on Lake Chala, which Mrs. French-Sheldon was the first European to actually navigate. Lord Lamington gave a full and instructive account of his recent journey to The Siam Border-land, an account which our Society hopes to hear from his own lips in the course of the ensuing winter session. Equally interesting was Mr. Harry D. Buckle's paper on his Journeys in the Lake Ngami Region. Mr. Buckle attests to the continued desiccation of the Lake; and, being the last European traveller in that region, his testimony is valuable. He was present at the time of Moremi's death. We need not allude at any length to Dr. Henry Schlichter's admirable and painstaking résumé of the Geography of South-West Africa, because the first part of it was published last month in our magazine, and the concluding portion is given this month. The only other papers on Africa, besides the one which I myself contributed, were Mr. Dobson's useful description of the economic and geographical conditions in the neighbourhood of The Volta River, and a somewhat critical paper by Mr. Bridgett Meakin on Morocco as a Field for Geographers. An elaborate and comprehensive paper on The Physical and Industrial Geography of Florida was contributed by Mr. Arthur Montefiore; and a most useful paper, which precedes this notice, was contributed by Dr. Bell on Colorado. Miss E. M. Clerke gave an interesting account of the monastic settlement of New Nursia, 70 miles from Perth, Western Australia, and incidentally showed how the Aborigines of Western Australia were capable of being raised to a higher level of civilisation. The subject of Geographical Education was introduced by its able exponent, Mr. Scott Keltie, in a paper describing the progress made in this country; but it failed to elicit a discussion. In spite of this fact, Dr. Yeats subsequently introduced a proposal to establish a Topographical Society at Cardiff. The proposal, however, met with very slight outside support, in consequence, it was alleged, of the subject having come up without sufficient warning. But that Geography was not altogether neglected at Cardiff might, in the absence of other evidence, be inferred from the grasp of the subject evinced by a local teacher, Mr. Gwyn Morris, in his paper on Commercial Geography. Mr. Crook again introduced the much-vexed question of The Revision and Improvement of the Large-scale Maps of the Ordnance Survey. The reforms which he advocates have already been set before our readers. His paper called forth considerable discussion, and resulted in the following Recommendations being drawn up by the Committee of Section E:- 1 1st. That the publication of the one-inch and six-inch Ordnance Survey Maps is, in the interests of science, urgently required at the earliest possible date, no less than in the interests of industry, manufacture, and technical education. 2nd. That steps be taken and provision made for keeping the Ordnance Maps up to date. 3rd. That the Maps as at present published are capable of certain improvements, as, for instance, the addition of coloured contours, the shading of the hills on the six-inch Maps, etc. 4th. That the interests of the Survey require that its Director should hold a permanent appointment. 5th. That the Maps should be made more accessible to the public and should be sold at a lower price, as is the case in nearly all other official publications, such as Admiralty Charts, Blue-books, etc. The above Recommendations were submitted to the Council of the Association, who had previously shown a desire to take action in the matter, but they are understood to have received only partial support. The next meeting of the Association is to take place at Edinburgh, commencing on 3rd August 1892. ARTHUR SILVA WHITE. THE FIELD OF GEOGRAPHY. (Being the Presidential Address to the Geographical Section of the By E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.S.G.S., F.R.G.S. Ir behoves every man from time to time to survey the field of his labours, and to render an account unto himself of the work he has accomplished, and of the tasks which still await him, in order that he may perceive whether the means employed hitherto are commensurate with the magnitude of his undertaking, and likely to lead up to the desired results. Such a survey of the Field of Geography I propose to make the subject of my address to-day. You are aware that this field is a large one, that its boundaries are defined no more precisely than are the boundaries of other fields of human research, and that the fellow-labourers who join us in its cultivation are not always agreed as to the tasks that are peculiarly their own, or as to the methods in accordance with which their work should be carried on. By some of our neighbours we have not infrequently been accused of encroachments, and of overstepping our legitimate boundaries in order to invade adjoining fields already in the occupation of others, who are not only willing to cultivate them, but even claim to be better qualified than we are. There is undoubtedly some truth in this reproach, for, although there have been, and perhaps still are, geographers who would limit their task to a mere description of the Earth's surface, there are others, to judge them by their performances, to whom earth and universe, geography and cosmography, are synonymous terms. If, as a lexicographer, I were merely called upon to define the literal meaning of the word "geography," I should content myself by saying that it meant a description of the Earth." This, however, is merely the translation of a name given to our department of knowledge in an age when all natural science was descriptive, and scientific inquirers were still content to collect facts, without attempting to reduce them to a system. The ancient name, however, has been retained, notwithstanding that our conception of the duties of the geographer has undergone a notable change. The German word "Erdkunde," although too comprehensive, would perhaps be preferable, but could be rendered only by the word "geology," a term already appropriated to quite a distinct department of science, which has much in common with geography, and may even be described as its offspring, but is most certainly not identical with it. Very varied have been the views as to what geography should embrace. Whilst Ptolemy confined the duties of the geographer to the production of a correct map of the Earth's surface, others fell into the opposite extreme, and were unable to resist the temptation of embellishing their "systems of geography" with historical excursions, and with information of the most varied kind, only remotely, if at all, connected with their subject. But whilst the geographer should guard, on the one hand, against being drawn away from his legitimate tasks, he should not, on the other, allow himself to be intimidated by those who, on the pretence of creating a geographical "science," would frighten him away from fields of research which his training enables him to cultivate to greater advantage than can be done by representatives of other departments of knowledge. But whatever changes may have taken place respecting the aims of the geographer, it is very generally acknowledged that the portraiture of the Earth's surface in the shape of a map lies within his proper and immediate domain. And there can be no doubt that a map possesses unique facilities for recording the fundamental facts of geographical knowledge, and that with a clearness and perspicuity not attainable by any other method. You will not, therefore, think it strange if I deal at considerable length with the development of cartography, more especially as my own labours have in a large measure been devoted to that department of geographical work. An inspection of the interesting collection of maps of all ages which I am able to place before you will serve to illustrate what I am about to say on this subject. You may take it for granted that maps have existed from the very earliest times. We can hardly conceive of Joshua dividing the Promised Land among the twelve tribes, and minutely describing their respective boundaries, without the assistance of a map. The surveyors and land-measurers of the civilised states of antiquity undoubtedly produced cadastral and engineering plans, which answered every practical requirement, notwithstanding that their instruments were of the simplest. This is proved by a plan of Rome, the only document of the kind which has survived, at least in fragments, to the present time. It is engraved on slabs of marble on a scale of 1: 300, and was originally fixed against a wall of the Roman Town Hall, so that it might be conveniently consulted by the citizens. Of the existence of earlier maps of the World or even of provinces, we possess |