regions of North America. England was thus enabled to become the founder of real colonies, the mother of nations; and her language, customs, and political institutions found a home in a new world.

And now, when the old highway through the Red Sea has been reopened, when the wealth flowing through the Canal of Suez is beginning to revivify the commerce of Italy, England may comfort herself with the thought that in her own colonies and in the States which have sprung up across the Atlantic she may find ample compensation for any possible loss that may accrue to her through geographical advantages being once more allowed to have full play.

I am afraid I have unduly tried your patience. I believe you will agree with me that no single individual can be expected to master all those departments which are embraced within the wide field of geography. Even the master-mind of a Humboldt fell short of this, and facts have accumulated since his time at an appalling rate. All that can be expected of our modern geographer is that he should command a comprehensive general view of his field, and that he should devote his energies and capacities to the thorough cultivation of one or more departments that lie within it.

INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL CONGRESS, 1891.

THE fifth International Geographical Congress was held at Berne, from 10th to 14th August, 1891.

The Honorary Presidents were H.M. the Emperor Dom Pedro II., H.M. King Leopold II., H.S.H. Albert Prince of Monaco, and the members of the Federal Council of Switzerland. The Honorary Committee was composed of the presidents of the geographical societies of twenty-two cities. Over fifty societies were personally represented at the Congress. Professor Paul Chaix and Professor Emile Chaix represented the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, the latter unofficially.

The papers read at the Congress were of high value, and will be published before the end of the year. They were too numerous to admit of adequate analysis in this place, and their mere mention would serve no useful purpose. We prefer, rather, to devote our space to the following description of the admirable exhibition of geographical appliances, for which we are indebted to Professor Emile Chaix.

The exhibition was organised by the Geographical Society of Berne, and was divided into three divisions :-(1) School geography, (2) Alpine exhibits, and (3) the progress of Swiss cartography. It was, therefore, only the first division which offered opportunities for international competition. Unhappily, the United Kingdom was scarcely represented at all. Russia sent no exhibits, the United States only Coast Survey maps, and Spain very few of any kind. France and Belgium were well represented, as also were Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Swiss exhibits were, of course, the most numerous.

The

Professor Emile Chaix is responsible for the following remarks on the character of the various exhibits.

Austria-Hungary sent a well-selected and graduated collection of geographical publications, including many excellent atlases-a large number edited by Hölzel of Vienna-school-books, and reliefs. Of special interest were the wood-reliefs of the basins of Austrian lakes.

The wall-maps were very satisfactory, both in their artistic and scientific execution. Maps deserving special mention were those by M. von Haardt (Hölzel), The Isothermal Map of the World (1:3,000,000) by Dr. Supan, and one of The

Ethnology of Asia (1: 8,000,000) by M. Haardt von Hardtenthurm. Another excellent and painstaking work was the Relief of Africa (1: 1,600,000) by Lieutenant G. Guttenbrunner which has been adopted for use in Austrian schools. The Physical and Statistical Hand-Atlas is a credit to Austria-Hungary. Of great interest, too, were the maps sent by the Geographical Institute of the University of Vienna, especially Dr. A. Penck's wall-map of The World's Glaciers, another of the Glacial Conditions in the Alps, by MM. Penck, Brückner, and Boehm, on the same scale (1: 600,000) as Von Haardt's Alps, and Herr Mullner's Lakes of the World, distinguishing between fresh-water lakes and those of brackish or salt water.

Belgium was represented by the numerous and good school-books of M. Du Fief, and by many atlases and other works by Brother Alexis, whose publications, being chiefly produced at Paris, are scarcely to be regarded as Belgian.

Although Russia was not, properly speaking, represented at all, the Geographical Society of Finland sent some fairly good exhibits, among which may be mentioned the works of Nordmann and Reuter, a Geological Map of Finland, and a large topographical map of Finland (1: 400,000), which, although out of date, was very interesting.

French exhibits were somewhat disappointing, in spite of the well-earned reputation of France for artistic reproduction and for her progress in geographical science. The engraving of the maps was not satisfactory, and the colouring sometimes extremely bad. In the school-maps physical features were in many instances very much neglected. But if the general appearance of French exhibits was somewhat disappointing, no praise can be too high for the work of individual exhibitors. Hachette and Co. sent some of their important works, as, for instance, M. Vivien de St. Martin's Universal Atlas, which is unsurpassed for the beauty of its engraving, and M. Meissas' Hypsometrical Map of France (1: 1,250,000), which was well coloured. Works of such recognised importance as M. Reclus' Universal Geography, and M. de St. Martin's Dictionary of Geography only require mention for their value to be universally admitted. The firm of Erhard Brothers exhibited a capital atlas by MM. Schrader, Prudent, and Anthoine. Finally, it is worth noting that only five out of the 326 French exhibits were produced out of Paris.

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The German exhibits were, as might be expected, of unsurpassed excellence. There were Dr. Kiepert's well-known wall-maps, and others by Wagner and Debes. Kiepert's maps, it is worth mentioning, are reduced to a uniform scale: the continents to 1: 8,000,000 and European countries to 1: 1,000,000. Herr A. Oppel, of Bremen, showed an interesting manuscript map of the World illustrating the progress of our knowledge of the Earth since the Middle Ages. We should not forget to mention Andree-Putzger's Atlas. But the famous firm of Justus Perthes sent by far the most notable exhibits all were excellent, from the Pocket-Atlas up to the last editions of Stieler and Berghaus. The Physical Atlas of Berghaus is, of course, without a rival. Sydow-Habenicht's physical and political wall-maps are specially deserving of mention as being among the best of their kind. German exhibits were no less important as regards books, for we find such well-known works as Ratzel's Anthropogeography, Hann's Climatology, Boguslawski-Krummel's Oceanography, Fritsch's Geology, Gunther's Mathematical Geography, Drude's Botanical Geography, Heim's Glaciers, van Bebber's Meteorology, and Gunther's Physical Geography. All these works are among the leading authorities in their respective subjects.

Of Italian exhibits the publications of Paravia, including as they do the works of Professor Guido Cora, were highly important.

The Swedish collection was very interesting. There was a large map, 7 feet

high, by M. Roth, of the Hypsometrical and Bathymetrical Conditions of Scandinavia, which was an admirable production on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000. Of even greater excellence, however, was a similar map of Southern Sweden (1: 500,000) executed at the Military Lithographic Institute, in thirteen gradations of lightbrown, and several colourings of blue. Finally, Nordenskiöld's interesting Facsimile Atlas should be mentioned.

Although Switzerland sent 600 exhibits to the division of School Geography, some of the Cantons were not represented at all. The collection was, however, a good one. For scientific exactness, technical execution, and their artistic appearance the Swiss maps were generally good. There were a large number of excellent wall-maps and reliefs. Of special importance were the map of Swiss Glaciers by M. Favre, and the geological Reliefs of certain Cantons by Professor Heim and M. Imfeld, on the scale of 1 : 25,000.

The Alpine exhibits included many beautiful Reliefs. But the most interesting part of the whole exhibition was that illustrating the progress of Swiss cartography. For the purpose of classification, the exhibits were divided under three sections (1) Maps up to 1790; (2) the transitional period, from 1790 to 1832; and (3) maps of recent date. A brief reference to this interesting collection may be permitted to us. We have first the Tabula Peutingeriana (193-211), the Tabula Galliæ Belgicæ (1482), out of the Ptolemaic edition of Nicolas Donis, three other specimens of the fifteenth century, twenty-three of the sixteenth, and others of later periods. All these old maps were very interesting, especially that of the Canton of Zurich by C. Gyger (1668), which is remarkably well constructed, and accurate for the time. The transition period of cartography showed very slow progress; but the recent maps are quite unsurpassed for their excellence. The map of Canton of Zurich (1: 25,000) by Professor Wild is so exact that railways could be constructed without further levellings of the country being required. Then there were copies of General Dufour's map and of the excellent Atlas Siegfried, now being published. The most recent maps were chromo-lithographical reproductions of Siegfried's maps, and those showing soundings in Swiss lakes.

The Jury intrusted with the task of examining these exhibits and awarding prizes was composed of the following members:-General von Arbter, Colonel Coello, Professor Du Fief, Mr. Scott Keltie, Professor Kempe, M. de Lannoy de Bissy, Professor Ratzel, and Professor Forel. All Government institutions, or over one-half of the exhibitors, were excluded from the competition. Forty-five prizes were awarded-eleven to Switzerland, seven to Germany, seven to AustriaHungary, six to France, four to Italy, three to Sweden, two to Belgium, and two to Finland.

The only really important conclusion, among the numerous resolutions passed, was the proposal of Professor Penck for the compilation by international co-operation of a map of the World on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000. Full reference to this important undertaking is made in our Geographical Notes (page 557) for this month.

On the question of the next Congress coming up for discussion, it was agreed that it should take place in London, if the Royal Geographical Society issued an invitation, otherwise at Budapest; and that in future the Congress should meet at intervals of from three to five years. Geographical Societies were requested to send deputations to Genoa and Madrid on the occasion of the celebration of the fourth centenary of the discovery of America.

GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.

BY W. A. TAYLOR, M.A.

EUROPE.

Lake Vyrnwy.—In connection with the engineering works, constructed to supply Liverpool with water from the valley of the Vyrnwy, a new geographical feature has come into existence. A dam, 1165 feet long, has been constructed across the valley, so as to confine the water of the river and form a lake 42 miles long by 1 mile broad. Its area is 1121 acres, and it can contain 2103 million cubic feet of water. Bala Lake is, therefore, no longer the largest in Wales. The new lake is situated in the county of Montgomery, 10 miles to the south-west of Bala Lake. Between them run the Berwyn Mountains, which here form the watershed between the drainage-areas of the Dee and Severn, and mark the boundary of the county.

Census of Austria-Hungary.-On December 31, 1890, the population of the monarchy (excluding Bosnia and Herzegovina) was 28,835,261. The increase in the urban population since 1880 has been very marked. Vienna has now a populaof 853,463, as against 704,756 in 1880. Three other towns contain more than 100,000 inhabitants each, namely: Budapest, 161,946; Trieste (with its territory), 157,648; and Graz, 106,946. The Magyars number 8,200,000, and constitute nearly half of the population of Hungary.-Revue Française, June 1.

ASIA.

The Indian Marine Survey.-We have received the annual Administrative Report from Commander Hoskyn, and give below the principal results of the season's work, taken from the pages of that useful and always interesting bluebook. The first investigation noted by Commander Hoskyn was undertaken in the neighbourhood of Masulipatam, where the relative positions of the lighthouse of Divi Point, the mouth of the river, and the adjacent coast-line were fixed. The shoals between Ennore and Pulicat were next examined, as considerable changes had been reported to have taken place among them; but, although soundings were carried out to the 100-fathom line, no material alterations could be discovered. The Investigator then sailed for Bombay, where the officers and chartroom staff were sent on to Poona, as usual, to work up the results obtained. On resumption of the survey proper, in October, the Cocos Islands were first visited, and a party was left on Table Island to make the necessary observations, while the Investigator steamed to Port Blair, and took Surgeon David Prain on board to resume his investigations anent the flora of the Cocos Islands. A rock reported in Manners Strait, with only 3 fathoms of water over it, was next sought for, and, after some trouble, located; but its position does not render it dangerous, as had been feared, to ships running between Port Blair and Madras. The survey of the east coast of India was then resumed, and carried on up to lat. 16° 50′ N., including a plan of Cocanada anchorage, which is supposed to have been affected by the action of the Godavari River. The boat party, under Lieutenant Gunn, continued the survey of the Bassein River, and for five months made continuous tidal observations at Diamond Island. After joining the staff at Poona, Lieutenant Gunn proceeded to the coast of Persia, and completed a survey of the approaches to the Bahmishir and Shatt-al-Arab Rivers. Thereafter the party visited Veraval, the examination of which was proceeding in February when the commanding officer addressed his report to Commander Hoskyn.

Surgeon Alcock reports at considerable length on his deep-sea investigations. These are full of interest, and, under his guidance, assume more and more importance. The number of deep-sea fishes in the collection now amounts to 100 species, compared with 160 species in the Challenger gatherings, and 120 species obtained in the Travailleur and Talisman expeditions. The observations made at the Cocos Islands are also included in Dr. Alcock's report, from which the following particulars are taken :

Great Coco Island presents considerable diversity in surface features. The south end is low, with a soil composed of sand and coral shingle, covered with a growth of the screw pine, Ipomoea, etc. To the north the scenery completely changes. Here, steep and rocky declivities are everywhere present, clothed with forest trees and thorny creepers. From the central heights a spur runs out into the low, flat region of the south, where a considerable amount of jungle was met with. The fact is noted that both on the flat land here and throughout Little Coco Island young palms sustain no injury whatever from the swarming land crabs. Jerry Island is connected with Great Coco Island by a reef, dry at low water, and is a barren, rocky spot, except to the north, where Ipomaa lobata flourishes luxuriantly on the low sand and coral soil. Palms, cycads, screw-pines, etc. also grow here. A small islet, between Jerry and Great Coco, is composed of an accumulation of coral shingle, dead shells, drift timber, coco-nuts, and woody fruits. This island appears to be increasing in size, and vegetation has already begun to make some progress. The exposed part of the reef, mentioned above, is of sandstone, hard, and dark in colour, passing into a breccia-conglomerate "traversed by fine laminæ of crystalline limestone, which are so irregularly inclined to the general plane of stratification as to recall the appearance of an intrusive rock. The strata at the south end of the island are much folded; they dip at an angle of about 60° east, south-east, south-west, and west, and this was verified in other parts of the island and on Little Coco Island." Masses of branching corals, chiefly Pocillopora and Madrepora, were observed surrounding the rocky tidal pools around the coast, where an asterid also occurs, but less frequently. The pools are choked with masses of a Porites, which, having grown peripherally, often form great circular discs of 15 feet in diameter. Little Coco Island is about 24 miles long by from to a mile broad, and has a ridge of elevation traversing it from one end to the other and running out into the sea in the form of a line of rocks. The dips of the strata were the same as those observed at Great Coco Island, with the exception of some on the west side, which were inclined north-west and north-north-east. "And this seems to prove," adds Surgeon Alcock, "that the Cocos group is a distinct little centre of elevation." The flora mostly consists of palms, Ipomaa lobata, screw-pines, forest trees, Calamus, and a variety of thorny shrubs and creepers. The vegetation is exceedingly dense, and comes so near the coast-line that, at high tides, only a narrow strip of sand is left exposed. Turtles frequent the west shores for the purpose of making their nests, and are followed by swarms of big water-lizards (Hydrosaurus salvator), which prey upon their eggs. There is a small lake upon the island, separated from the sea by a strip of jungle, and its water is sufficiently fresh to be potable; it covers an area of several acres, and has a depth of from 6 inches to 2 feet, its bottom being completely covered with the fresh-water alga Chara, small patches of lotus floating upon its surface. Teal and fish were seen here, but none of the latter were caught. Mangroves continue to flourish, though the water is practically fresh. Pigs abound on Little Coco, although they do not appear to occur on the larger island, and Trepang is so abundant and of such good quality as to point to its commercial importance. Annexed is a table showing the principal soundings made within the period