The Northern Territory of South Australia contains 4958 inhabitants, of whom only 1165 are Europeans. The natives of Australia, their number being undetermined, are omitted, except those in the service of Europeans in Victoria and New South Wales. The number of Maoris in New Zealand is estimated at 41,523. The increase in the seven colonies during the past ten years has been 1,059,706, or 38.54 per cent., and of the five Australian colonies 891,907, or 41.86 per cent. The highest rate of increase was in Queensland, 80.3 per cent., and the lowest in South Australia, 13.95 per cent. The ratio of males to females is 100: 86-31.-Deutsche Rundschau, Jahrg. xiv. Heft 2.

The Tour du Monde, Nouv. Géogr., p. 328, gives the populations of the capitals, as follows:-Melbourne, 489,185; Sydney, 386,400; Adelaide, 133,019; Brisbane, 55,959; Perth, 9615; and Hobart, 24,884. Since 1881 Melbourne has received an increase of 206,238 inhabitants; Sydney, 162,189; Adelaide, 29,007; Brisbane, 24,850; and Perth, 3793. Hobart, on the other hand, has diminished by 2364.

The Trade of Fiji. The imports and exports in 1890 were of the value of £571,290, or £102,138 in excess of the amount in 1887. The exports are to the imports in the ratio of 63.81 : 36·19. Among the former sugar and molasses show a steady increase, while maize has fallen off, owing to increased local consumption. There is a marked rise in the value of manures, building materials, and machinery imported. The Colonies and India, August 1, 1891.

GENERAL.

Arctic Winds and Polar Expeditions.-Dr. A. Supan discusses, in Petermann's Mitteilungen, Bd. xxxvii., No. 8, the movements of the air in the Arctic regions. His results are obtained from a study of Dr. Buchan's charts annexed to the Challenger report. Dr. Supan divides the year into three parts: the first extends from November to May; the second from June to August; and the third consists only of the months of September and October. During the first of these a belt of high pressure runs from the Asiatic to the American coast and divides the Arctic basin into two parts. On the east the air flows to the Pacific, and on the west to the Atlantic, low-pressure centre. The middle line of this ridge Dr. Supan calls the Arctic wind-parting (Windscheide). But during the period in question, this wind-parting undergoes great changes in position, approaching the Bering Straits during the months of November and December, and in February beginning a rapid retrogression, which carries it past the Pole and almost to the Atlantic threshold of the Arctic regions. In summer the belt of high pressure disappears, and instead a feebly-developed anticyclone is formed somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Pole, whence winds flow outwards towards the continental borders. These winds must, in such high latitudes, be diverted considerably to the east by the rotation of the earth. Lastly, during September and October, a deep barometric depression passes from the Atlantic Ocean along the northern coast of the Old World towards the New Siberia Islands. On the northern edge of this depression easterly winds must prevail. The drift of the Jeannette, as recorded in De Long's log-book, is a proof of the correctness of the preceding conclusions, for it must be remembered that the ocean currents are mainly directed by the wind. The vessel advanced or receded, along with the ice in which it was imprisoned, in general, at those times when, according to the foregoing theory, the wind-parting would lie to the east or west of it respectively. Hence it is evident that vessels entering the Arctic Ocean from the Atlantic have to struggle, for the greater part of the year, against the stream, while those that enter from Bering Straits swim

with it. Dr. Supan considers, in the next place, the time that will probably be required by Dr. Nansen's expedition to perform its journey across the Pole. The ice-block which transported the articles belonging to the Jeannette expedition (S.G.M., vol. vi., p. 35) covered a distance of 3300 miles in 1100 days, or about three miles a day. This is a rate never surpassed by the Jeannette, except in her last forward drift, and, therefore, it may be assumed that the ice-block did not retrograde so rapidly and for so long a time as the ship. During the changes of the position of the wind-parting it may have always remained in the region of the Atlantic current. It may also be inferred from the drift of the Jeannette that the non-periodic displacements of the wind-parting are most marked in the neighbourhood of Bering Straits, so that Dr. Nansen is likely to make rapid progress after passing the New Siberia Islands. Five years, then, may be considered as more than ample allowance for the duration of the voyage.

While Dr. Nansen's route is undoubtedly the best for vessels, the Pole may be reached with sledges by other routes. M. H. Ekroll, a Norwegian, has designed sledges which may be combined to form a boat. His expedition is to consist of six members, and the sledges are to be drawn by a large number of dogs, so that the speed may be increased and the supply of provisions requisite reduced. Being able to travel over sea or ice, the expedition will, to a certain extent, be independent of wind and weather. From the eastern island of Spitzbergen, somewhere about Cape Mohn, to which place the expedition will be conveyed by ship in June 1893, Herr Ekroll will make for Petermannsland, in order to avoid the ice drifting to the west and north-west. To the north of Petermannsland he hopes to find more compact ice, and to be able to travel direct to the Pole. Should mishap occur, or the movement of the ice be too rapid, he can retreat on Spitzbergen, where a dépôt will be formed, but, under favourable circumstances, he will return from his furthest point to the east or west coast of Greenland, where also dépôts will be formed. The success of the expedition depends in great measure on the condition of the ice and the progress that can be made against the wind, for in all probability the wind will be adverse. Dr. Supan estimates the distance from Cape Mohn to Petermannsland at about 435 miles, from Petermannsland to the North Pole at about 590, and thence to Fort Conger at 515. This distance of 1540 miles would be traversed at the rate assumed by Herr Ekroll, 11 kilomètres or about 6.8 miles per day, in 226 days. Herr Ekroll has yet to find funds for his expedition. His country cannot be expected to contribute more to such undertakings, and he will, therefore, have to look for aid elsewhere.

Soundings in the Mediterranean and in the Indian Ocean. On the 28th of July a sounding of 2408 fathoms was taken by the Austrian expedition on board the Pola, between Malta and Kandia, in lat. 35° 44′ 20′′ N. and long. 21° 44′ 50′′ E., and 20 miles to the south-east of this spot another sounding of 2230 fathoms. These depths exceed even those of the Abisso Magnaghi (vide p. 494).

In the Indian Ocean, in lat. 11° 22′ S. and long. 116° 50′ E., the Recorder has found a depth of 3393 fathoms, greater by more than 100 fathoms than any sounding hitherto taken in this ocean.-Petermann's Mitt. Bd. xxxvii. No. 10.

The Railways of the World.-The Deutsche Rundschau, Jahrg. xiv. Heft 1, gives the following figures. In Europe the total length of railways open for traffic in 1889 was 136,870 miles; in Asia, 19,278; in Africa, 5366; in America, 197,558; and in Australia, 11,136 total, 370,210. If these figures be compared with those for 1885 and 1886 (S.G.M. vol. v. p. 158), it will be seen that a large increase has taken place. The length of new railways is greatest in America, Europe comes next, but if the percentage is taken, this continent occupies the last place n the

1

list. Asia has few railways compared to its size, but the percentage of lines made since 1885 is very high, namely, over 39 per cent.

The Price of Ivory.—The firm of Meyer, in Hamburg, has published a pamphlet wherein are shown the fluctuations in the price of ivory during the past fifty years. Abstracts from this pamphlet are published in the Mouvement Géogr. No. 21, and the Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, No. 10, and in the latter the fluctuations are represented by a diagram. In 1840, the average wholesale price was 10 marks a kilogramme, or barely 4s. 6d. per lb. Since then it has gradually risen, until this year it has reached 12s. 3 d. per lb. From 1885 to 1890 the price was comparatively low, European activity being very great in Africa during those years, but in 1890 the blockade of the East Coast caused the price to rise to 12s. 11d. The total quantity supplied during the years 1879-83 was 853 tons, Africa yielding all but 20 tons. Of this, Britain took no less than 286 tons, and Germany and India were second and third in the list of customers.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Two new branches have been discovered in the famous Cave at Adelsberg, Carniola, in length almost double the part already known.-Revue Française et Exploration, September 1st, 1891.

The total number of Artesian Wells that have been bored in Algeria, in the departments of Algiers, Oran, and Constantine, is 13,135. Through their instrumentality 12,000,000 acres have been reclaimed.—Science, August 7th.

Since Zanzibar became a British Protectorate, its Shipping Trade has nearly doubled, the net tonnage entered during the past six months being 130,000 tons, against 72,000 for the previous half-year.-The Colonies and India, October 31st, 1891.

Telegrams from Mombaza state that the Kenia, a Steamboat of the British East Africa Company, arrived at Baras (Baza ?) on June 29th, having, therefore, navigated the Tana to a distance of 300 miles from its mouth.-Boll. della Soc. Geogr. Italiana, September 1891.

Mr. Joseph Thomson has returned home after a successful journey to Lake Bangweolo, in the course of which he has been able to gather trustworthy information on that lake, and to clear up the discrepancies which exist between Livingstone's and Giraud's delineations of it.

In Josephine County, Oregon, an enormous Stalactitic Cave has been discovered, not inferior in extent, probably, to the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky. It is situated at a distance of twelve miles from the Californian boundary and forty miles from the coast.--Deutsche Rundschau, Jahrg. xiv. Heft 1.

A regular service of Steamboats has been established on the Orinoco and its affluents. One of these boats will ascend the Meta to Cabuyaro, a day's march from Bogotá. Colombia possesses an extremely fertile soil, vast forests of valuable trees, and considerable mineral wealth. By this new service the distance traversed in journeying from Bogotá to Europe will be shortened by 370 miles.-Revue Française et Exploration, September 1st, 1891.

An unsuccessful attempt has been made by the steam-launch Argus to shoot the Rapids of Khong by the passage discovered by MM. Pelletier and Mougeot (S.G.M. vol. vi. p. 424). A commission sent to study the question has decided that the rapids are impassable, and recommends that a service of boats should be

established on the upper course of the river Mékong. The boats must be taken to pieces at Khong, and carried past the rapids by a Decauville railway, which may afterwards be used for the transport of merchandise.-Le Tour du Monde, Nouvelles Géogr., p. 342.

Exploration in Central Asia is still prosecuted vigorously. The departure of Captain Bartchevsky for the Pamir has been already announced. M. Katanof is engaged in the exploration of the Thian Shan. His intention was to proceed to Khami through Umrutsi and Barkul, to pass the autumn at Turfan and the winter in Kuldja. General Tillo will examine the depression in the Turfan oasis, discovered by the brothers Grum Grzhimailo. The Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg is organising an expedition for the scientific exploration of Siberia. Count Eugene Zichy is preparing an expedition to the Altai Mountains. Prince Galitzin has arrived at Karghalik, and Prince Constantine Viazemsky writes from Khiakta that he is setting out for Pekin, whence he will proceed to Indo-China.

NEW BOOKS.

Crozet's Voyage to Tasmania, New Zealand, the Ladrone Islands, and the Philippines, in the Years 1771-1772. Translated by H. LING ROTH. Illustrated. London: Truslove and Shirley, 1891. Pp. xxiii. + 148. (500 copies printed.)

It was only fitting that the translation and editing of Crozet's voyage should be undertaken by the accomplished author of The Aborigines of Tasmania. The expedition in question, commanded, till his death in New Zealand, by Marion du Fresne, is an important link in that great century of exploration in which French navigators had so distinguished a part, and it is the irony of fate that the names of these two accomplished sailors, Marion and Crozet, after having been the first, practically, to visit and describe New Zealand, and who, in fact, annexed it to the French crown, should now be only represented on the map of the World by two barren and almost inaccessible groups of rocks in the Southern Ocean. (The name of "Marion," by the way, occurs some thirty times as a town-name in the United States, but probably with no reference to the explorer.)

After sighting and taking the position of the aforesaid groups, the explorer proceeded to Tasmania, then supposed (for Bass had not then discovered the strait which bears his name) to form part of the Australian continent. Here their intercourse with the natives was soon closed by a fight, owing to their misunderstanding of a curious and certainly obscure native sign of amity. Their stay in New Zealand was interrupted, as is well known, after several weeks of friendly intercourse, by the massacre of a large party of the French, including the commander. It is difficult now to say to what this action on the part of the Maoris was due. It may have been simple caprice or treachery of these children of Nature, but it was more probably due to the violation by the French of some specially sacred tabu, unintentional, for this institution was not then understood; or it may have been revenge for the harsh conduct of Surville's people two years previously. The event naturally gives a dark tinge to all Crozet's observations on the character of the people-though, indeed, he has not much pity to spare for any "savages," even under the Spanish mercies, lay and clerical, of 200 years ago. The Spanish governor at Guam in Crozet's time, M. Tobias, seems, however, to have been a man of much humanity and enlightenment. Crozet now took command of Marion's ship, the Mascarin. He hardly alludes to the captain, Duclesmeur, of the companion ship, the Castries,

On leaving

though that officer now became the commander of the expedition. New Zealand his wish was to visit the Amsterdam and Rotterdam of Tasman (the islands Tongatabu and Namuka of the Tongan groups) but his course took him too far to the east, and he only sighted some outlying reef islands, and probably on his course northwards the island of Niuafoou. Sailing thence still northward, he seems to have just missed all the numberless islands of the Ellice, Gilbert, and Marshall groups, though constantly observing traces of the neighbourhood of land, and then, turning westwards, made the island of Guam in the Ladrones; from thence he proceeded to the Philippines. He was hospitably received in both these groups, and it is interesting to compare his remarks on these islands with their actual condition under the Spaniards. Equally interesting are all his details about the people and the natural resources of New Zealand. Though not a man of science, he is a close and accurate observer, with a keen perception of the beauties of Nature, and his descriptions are singularly clear in their details.

Several of his statements as to the flora and fauna might with advantage have been elucidated by editorial notes-e.g., the "potatoes" he speaks of were probably not potatoes at all, but the Batatas (convolvulus) edulis. It is hardly possible that potatoes could have existed in New Zealand before Cook's time. Cook, indeed, mentions having gathered potatoes on his second voyage, but, we take it, they were the result of what he himself must have planted on his first visit. It would have been interesting also to know what exactly were the "Aloes pite" and "a very small flax"; both were cultivated, so the latter could not have been the Phormium tenax ; and other names of plants and of birds should have been identified.

There is a curious discrepancy between two descriptions quoted, both careful and elaborate, of the Ladrone outrigger, the one by Crozet and the other by Captain Anson forty years earlier. Crozet states that the outrigger and flat side (the other only being convex) is always kept to leeward, while Anson explains that they always sail with the outrigger to windward. Crozet is quoted as saying, "These boats have no bridge": this should surely be “ 'no deck" (pont). There are a good many misprints, and some wrong numbering of the plates, which, besides, are not placed opposite the passages to which they refer.

Hugo Zöller: Deutsch-Neuguinea und meine Ersteigung des Finisterre-Gebirges. Eine Schilderung des ersten erfolgreichen Vordringens zu den Hochgebirgen Inner-Neuguineas, der Natur des Landes, der Sitten der Eingeborenen und des Gegenwärtigen Standes der Deutschen Kolonisationsfähigkeit in KaiserWilhelms-Land, Bismarck- und Salomo-Archipel, nebst einem Wortverzeichnis von 46 Papua-Sprachen, etc. Stuttgart, Berlin, Leipzig: Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft. Pp. xxxii. +546.

To the first and most prominent item of this comprehensive title-page, viz., the expedition to the Finisterre Mountains, reference has already been twice made in our Magazine (see vol. v. p. 505; and vii. p. 40).

The details of the journey now given, besides that the narrative is agreeably written, are valuable as pointing out the special requirements and difficulties of New Guinean travel; the latter, to say the truth, do not seem particularly formidable-it is necessary to carry provisions; but the party suffered very little from fever, the natives, if not friendly, were timid, while the difficulty of porterage seems now to have been surmounted-imported labourers from the "Bismarck " Archipelago, and even the New Guinea coast natives, acting well and willingly as carriers. If the leaders of the expedition wore out three pairs of boots each in a month, we should be inclined to blame rather the bootmaker than the roads. They