in the good old times men conformed themselves to dharma alone, and then there was no room for vyavahâra, or mere ordinary business. When the corruption of morals bred avarice, hatred, and the like, vyavahâra necessarily came into existence. See V. N. Mandlik, Introd. Hindu Law, lxx.

I have lately had my attention drawn to a curious and difficult passage in the Mahabharata (Vana parva, 246), which seems to throw some light on the meaning of dharma,' as used in the text under notice, and in Manu generally. According to the translation now being published by Protap Chundra Roy (Calcutta), Savitri is made to say that: They who have not their souls under control acquire no dharma by leading the four successive modes of life, viz. celibacy with study, domesticity (dharmam), retirement into the woods, and renunciation of the world. That which is called dharmam is said to consist of vijñânam (true knowledge). The wise, therefore, have declared dharmam to be the foremost of all things, and not the passage through the four successive modes. By practising the duties of even one of these four modes agreeably to the directions of the wise, we have attained to dharmam, and, therefore, we do not desire the second or the third mode, viz. celibacy with study or renunciation. It is for this, again, that the wise have declared dharmam to be the foremost of all things.' The meaning of the passage (briefly) seems to be that Savitri, who is endeavouring to rescue her husband from the clutches of Yama, argues thus: True religious merit cannot

be attained by those who do not control their souls; on the other hand, it is attained by those who properly pass through even one of the four successive modes: I and my husband have so passed through one of them, namely, domesticity, and therefore we have no need to pass through another. Here, then,' dharma' seems to stand by itself for (1) general merit, (2) the special merit of domesticity, and (3) true religious merit-the foremost of all things. And this last is said to consist in 'vijñāna,' true knowledge.

It would seem to be not improbable that as in this passage so in Manu three kinds or degrees of 'dharma' are intended to be spoken of. Thus, for example, in VIII. 9, true religious merit obviously is intended. The text is: For a man performing the dharma declared by revelation and tradition obtains fame here and after his death extreme happiness.' With this compare II. 13: A knowledge of dharma is ordained for men not given up to wealth and pleasure; of those who would know dharma the Veda (is) the supreme authority.' Also II. 1: 'Learn the dharma which is followed by the learned (and) good, by those ever free from spite and passions, (and) which is acknowledged by the mind.'

On the other hand, we have in I. 115 the special dharma of gambling, and in 114 that of women; whilst in I. 99, and other texts, ordinary dharma is

meant.

The connection of dharma (in its highest sense) with vijñāna, true knowledge, is illustrated by the name of the author of the Mitakṣarā, Vijñāneçvara or

Vijñāna Yogi. And Anquetil Duperron (Leg. Orient. p. 92) tells us that Vijñāneçvarudu was the name of a Telugu King,' who had collected the laws of which is composed the book of right,' i.e. (it is to be presumed) the Výjñāneqvarīyam.

The word dharma would seem to be connected with the Greek Themis, the Anglo-Saxon Deman, the English Doom, and other cognate words. And in some respects it agrees exactly with Themis, e.g. in denoting what is meet and right because established by immemorial usage, as opposed to statute law. Themis personified is the goddess of law and order, the patroness of existing rights, and Dharma may mean much the same. Themis also is used for punishment,

and so is Dharma.

According to Talboys Wheeler (History of India, iii. 212 et seq.) 'the edicts of Priyadarsi inculcate goodness, virtue, kindness, and religion, as summed up in the one emphatic term Dharma.'

On the other hand, the Kama-sutra (see below p. 134) regards dharma as obedience to the astras in the matter of sacrifices and the like.

Perhaps, on the whole, blessedness,' as having in it a decided religious tincture, would come as near as any other word to the meaning of dharma in the passage under notice. But, having indicated in a rough general way what ordinarily it denotes and connotes, I shall prefer to leave the word untranslated.

Usage 'is highest dharma,' which again consists in true knowledge, and the prudent twice-born man will ever be intent on this.' Where, then, is ' 'usage

to be found? An answer is afforded by Manu I. 108, quoted above. Other constituents of dharma are mentioned in II. 12: The Veda, tradition, good custom, and what is pleasing to one's self, that (the wise) have plainly declared to be the fourfold definition of dharma.' Evidently, usage is to be discovered by searching the Veda and dharmaçãstras (see II. 10), and one's own conscience.

But it is only a twice-born man who can so discover his usage and dharma: Çūdras, and women, and all others must look elsewhere for information.

This is rendered sufficiently plain by a consideration of the following circumstances. The so called Code of Manu begins with the statement that the Seers come to Manu, and ask him to tell them truly in order the rules of all the castes, and of all the castes that arise between (them).' And (as Burnell points out) 'Medhâtithi says these laws refer to only the Brahmans, Kṣatriyas, and Vaiçyas, not to the Çûdras. Confer IV. 80, 81, from which it is evident that this is correct. Medhātithi might have quoted the Âpastamba dharmasûtra (i. I. 5) to the same effect, also verse 91 of this lecture.'

Whereas Manu is represented (in I. 107) to have declared in this treatise the perpetual usages of the four castes,' I. 91 declares specifically: One duty the Lord assigned to a Çudra-service to those (before mentioned) classes without grudging.'

And IV. 80, 81 run as follows: One may not give advice to a Çudra, nor (give him) the remains (of food), or (of) butter that has been offered. And

one may not teach him the law, or enjoin upon him religious observances. For he who tells him the law, and he who enjoins upon him (religious observances), he indeed, together with that (Çūdra), sinks into the darkness of the hell called Asamvṛtta.' And in his note thereon Burnell says that, according to Medhātithi, advice means here in regard to the Çudra's conduct, not simply friendly advice. Whilst the commentators affirm that, where the author of Manu does seem to give advice to Çūdras, it is only to family servants that he gives it. And similarly X. 126, says: 'There is not any commission of sin in a Çudra, and he ought not to receive the initiation; he has no authority in respect to a rule of right, and no restraint in consequence of a rule of right.'

It appears clearly from several passages in the Satapatha-Brahmana (translated by Eggeling) that, before its publication, the Brahmans and Kṣatriyas had firmly established themselves in positions high above that of the Vaiçyas, or ordinary clans; and that, whilst the Kṣatriya preyed on the Vaiçya, the Brahman attached himself to, and lived upon, the Kṣatriya. Thus, Vol. I. 82 shows the Ksatriya to be the oppressor of the Vaiçya; I. 94 that the former was served by the latter; II. 66 that the former lived on the latter; II. 228 that the people must go down before the Kṣatriya; whilst II. 270 essays to prove (by the story of Varuna and Mitra) the necessity of a king who desires success, always having with him a Brahman to speed his deed. For Mitra, or intelligence, is the Brahman, and Varuna the nobility.