From the allusions to the condition of morals and religion in Judah in 1, 4-6. 8. 9. 12. 3, 1-3. 7, it may be inferred with tolerable certainty that the period of Josiah's reign during which Zephaniah wrote was prior to the great reformation of his eighteenth year (B.C. 621), in which the idolatry attacked by the prophet was swept away (comp. e.g. 1, 4. 5 with 2 Ki. 23, 4. 5. 12).

From the fact that he speaks of a "remnant of Baal" 1, 4 (which implies that in part the Baal worship had already been destroyed), it has been inferred further that he wrote after Josiah's 12th year, in which, according to 2 Ch. 34, 3, the king's measures of reform were first commenced. The LXX, however, for remnant read y name (cf. Hos. 2, 17 [H. 19]. Zech. 13, 2); so that, if their reading be correct, this inference will fall to the ground.

Zephaniah's prophecy may be divided into three parts: I. the menace, c. 1; II. the admonition, 2, 1—3, 7; III. the promise, 3, 8-20.

I. C. 1. Zephaniah opens his prophecy with an announcement of destruction, conceived apparently-to judge from the universality of its terms-as embracing the entire earth, v. 2 f., but directed in particular against the idolaters and apostates in Judah and Jerusalem, vv. 4-6. Let the earth be silent! for a "Day of Jehovah" (p. 197) is at hand, a day of sacrifice, in which the victims are the Jewish people, and those invited to partake in the offering are the heathen nations "sanctified" (see I Sa. 16, 5) for the occasion, v. 7. Three classes are named as those upon whom the judgment will light with greatest severity, court officials, who either aped foreign fashions or were foreigners themselves, and who were addicted to corruption and intrigue; the merchants resident in Jerusalem; and Jews sunk in irreligious indifferentism, vv. 8-13. Vv. 14-18 the prophet develops the figure of the "Day of Jehovah," describing the darkness and terror which are to accompany it, and the fruitlessness of the efforts made to escape from it.

II. 2, I 3, 7. Here Zephaniah urges his people to repent, vv. 1-3, and thus to escape the threatened doom, which will engulph, he declares, in succession the Philistines, vv. 4-7, Moab and Ammon, vv. 8-11, Ethiopia, v. 12, and even Nineveh, the proud Assyrian capital, itself, vv. 13-15. From Nineveh the prophet turns again to address Jerusalem, and describes afresh the sins rampant in her, especially the sins of her judges and great men,

and her refusal to take warning from the example of her neighbours, 3, 1-7.

III. 3, 8-20. Let the faithful in Jerusalem, then, wait patiently until Jehovah's approaching interposition is accomplished, v. 8, the issue of which will be that all nations will serve Him "with one consent," and that the purged and purified "remnant of Israel" will cleave to God in sincerity of heart, and, trusting in Him, will dwell in safety upon their own land, vv. 9-13. With his eye fixed on this blissful future, the prophet, in conclusion, bids his people rejoice thankfully in the restoration of Jehovah's favourable presence in their midst, in the removal of the reproach and sorrow at present resting upon them, and in the honourable position which they will then hold among the nations of the earth, vv. 14-20.

Though Zephaniah predicts the destruction of Nineveh (2, 13-15), he makes no allusion to the agents by which it was accomplished. The Chaldæans, who indeed at the time when the prophet wrote, while Asshurbanipal was still sitting on the throne of Assyria, or had but recently (626) died, had not yet appeared as an independent power. The early years of the reign of Josiah coincided, however, with the great irruption of Scythian hordes into Asia recorded by Herodotus (above, p. 237); and it is not impossible that the prophet's language, and especially his description of the approaching Day of Jehovah, may reflect the impression which the news of these formidable hosts, advancing in the distance and carrying desolation with them, produced in Judah (comp. 1, 2-3. 7o. 13. 16. 17, from which it appears that Zephaniah pictures some invading foe as the agent in the coming disaster). Some interesting remarks on the prophetic representation of Zephaniah may be found in the Encycl. Brit. s.v.

§ 10. HAGGAI.

Sixteen years had clapsed since the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon, and no effort—or at least no successful effort-had been made to rebuild the national sanctuary. In the second year of Darius (B.C. 520), the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (cf. Ezr. 4, 24. 5, 1. 2) came forward, reproaching the people with their neglect, and exhorting them to apply themselves in earnest to the task, with the result that four years afterwards (ib. 6, 14. 15) the work was completed.

The prophecy of Haggai consists of four sections, arranged chronologically:

(1.) C. 1. In the 2nd year of Darius, the first day of the 6th

month. Haggai appeals publicly to the people no longer to postpone the work of rebuilding the Temple: their neglect was not due to want of means, for they had built ceiled houses for themselves, and it had been followed, he points out, by failure of crops and drought, indicative of the Divine displeasure. His words produced such an effect upon those who heard them, that on the 24th day of the same month the people, headed by Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua, began the work.

(2.) 2, 1-9. On the 21st day of the 7th month, the prophet addresses words of encouragement to those who might have seen the Temple of Solomon, and compared the structure now rising from the ground unfavourably with it: the later glory of the Temple will exceed its former glory, by reason, viz., of the munificence of the Gentiles, who will offer of their costliest treasures for its adornment (v. 7 RV.; cf. Is. 60, 5b. 11b); and the blessing of peace is solemnly bestowed upon it.

(3.) 2, 10-19. On the 24th day of the 9th month, Haggai, by means of replies elicited from the priests on two questions respecting ceremonial uncleanness,1 teaches the people that, so long as the Temple continues unbuilt, they are as men who are unclean their offerings are unacceptable; and hence the late unfruitful seasons. From the present day, however, on which the foundation of the Temple was laid (v. 18 f.), Jehovah promises to bless them.

(4.) 2, 20-23. On the same day, Haggai encourages Zerubbabel, the civil head of the restored community, and representative of David's line (1 Ch. 3, 19), with the assurance that in the approaching overthrow of the thrones and kingdoms of the heathen (cf. v. 6 f.), he will receive special tokens of the Divine favour and protection.2

The style of Haggai, though not devoid of force, is, comparatively speaking, simple and unornate. His aim was a practical one, and he goes directly to the point. He lacks the imagination and poetical power possessed by most of the prophets; but his style is not that of pure prose: his thoughts, for instance, not unfrequently shape themselves into parallel clauses, such as are usual in Hebrew poetry.

1 See the explanation of the passage in Farrar, p. 193.

2 See Jer. 22, 24: the honourable position from which Jehoiachin is there degraded, is here bestowed afresh upon Zerubbabel.

§ II. ZECHARIAH.

The Book of Zechariah falls into two parts, clearly distinguished from each other by their contents and character, c. 1—8 and c. 9-14. There is no question that c. 1-8 are the work of the Zechariah whose name they bear; but the authorship and date of c. 9-14 are disputed, and will be considered subsequently.

Zechariah, the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo, prophesied, according to I, 1. 7 and 7, 1, in the 2nd and 4th years of Darius Hystaspis (B.C. 520 and 518). He was thus a contemporary of Haggai's, and is unquestionably identical with the Zechariah, son of Iddo, who is named in Ezra 5, 1. 6, 14 as co-operating with Haggai in his efforts to induce the people to prosecute the work of rebuilding the Temple.

I. C. 1-8. This part of the book consists of three distinct prophecies: (1) 1, 1-6, introductory; (2) 1, 7—c. 6 ; (3) c. 7—8. (1.) 1, 1-6. A brief but earnest exhortation to repent, which Zechariah is directed to address to his fellow-countrymen, based upon the consequences which their forefathers had experienced when they neglected the warnings of the "former prophets." The 8th month of the 2nd year of Darius would fall between the date of Hag. 2, 1-9 and that of Hag. 2, 10-19.

(2.) 1, 7—6, 8 (24th day of the 11th month of the same year), comprising eight symbolical visions, with an appendix, 6, 9–15, the whole being designed for the encouragement of the Jews, and especially of Zerubbabel and Joshua, respectively the civil and religious heads of the community, in the work of rebuilding the Temple. The significant features of each vision are pointed out to the prophet by an angel.

(a) 1, 8-17. The Divine chariots and horses, which are Jehovah's messengers upon earth (1, 10b; cf. Job 1, 7), report that there is no movement among the nations (Hag. 2, 6 f. 21 f.), no sign of the approach of the Messianic crisis: 70 years have passed (B.C. 586-520), and still Jerusalem lies under the Divine displeasure! Jehovah replies with the assurance that the Temple shall now be rebuilt, and the prosperity of His people be no longer delayed.

(b) 1, 18-21 Heb. 2, 1-4]. Four horns, symbolising the

nations opposed to Israel, have their strength broken by four smiths.

(c) C. 2. An angel with a measuring line goes forth to lay out the site of the new Jerusalem: it is to have no walls, for its population will be unlimited, and Jehovah will be its defence. Judgment is about to break upon Babylon; let those still in exile, then, hasten to escape: ere long many nations will join themselves to Israel: already Jehovah is stirring in His holy habitation.1

(d) C. 3. Joshua, the high priest, appears, standing before Jehovah, laden with the sins of the people: he is accused by Satan, but is acquitted, and given rule over the Temple, with the right of priestly access to Jehovah, vv. 1-5. After this he receives the further promise of the advent of the Messiah (v. 8b: see Jer. 23, 5. 33, 15), and the restoration of national felicity, vv. 6-10.

(e) C. 4. The vision of the golden candlestick and the two olive-trees, symbolising the restored community (the candlestick), receiving its supply of Divine grace (the oil) through the two channels of the spiritual and temporal power (the olive-branches, v. 12, or "sons of oil," i.e. anointed ones, v. 14, viz. Joshua and Zerubbabel), vv. 1–5. 11–14. Vv. 6-10 contain an encouragement addressed to Zerubbabel, who, it is said, will find the obstacles before him disappear, and, in spite of mockers (v. 10), will himself finish the Temple which he has now begun.

(ƒ) 5, 1-4. A roll, inscribed with curses, flies over the Holy Land, as a token that in future the curse for crime will of itself light upon the criminal.

(g) 5, 5-11. Israel's guilt, personified as a woman, is cast into an ephah-measure, and, covered by its heavy lid, is transported to Babylonia, where for the future it is to remain.

(h) 6, 1-8. Four chariots, with variously coloured horses, appear, for the purpose of executing God's judgments in different quarters of the earth. That which goes northwards is charged in particular to "quiet His spirit" (ie. to satisfy His anger: cf. Ez. 5, 13. 16, 42) on the north country, i.e. on Babylonia.

1 Former prophecies are here reaffirmed: see Is. 54, 2 f. 60, 18. 19. 14, 2. Ez. 43, 9. Is. 14, 1. 66, 6. Similarly with 1, 16. 17, cf. Is. 52, 8". 9". 58, 12; with 8, 4, Is. 65, 20; with 8, 7 f., Is. 43, 5. Ez. 36, 24. 28; with 8, 22 f., Is. 45, 14 &c.