we have simply touched upon the salient points of its history, which would take volumes to describe in detail. Still there is sufficient for the reader to know by a retrospective glance why and how the French invaded and conquered Lower CochinChina, and what are their designs in Cambodia. ART. II.-1. Observations on Odd-Fellow and Friendly Societies. By F. G. P. Neison. London, 1846. 2. The History, present Position, and Social Importance of Friendly Societies. By Charles Hardwick. London, 1859. 3. Observations on the Rate of Mortality and Sickness existing amongst Friendly Societies; calculated from the experience of the members comprising the Independent Order of Odd Fellows, Manchester Unity. By Henry Ratcliffe, Corresponding Secretary. Colchester, 1862. 4. Insolvent Sick and Burial Clubs; the Causes and the Cure. By Charles Hardwick. Manchester, 1863. 5. The Right and Wrong of Benefit Societies. By F. A. New. London, 1863. 6. Quarterly Journal of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Manchester, 1864. 7. Directory of the Ancient Order of Foresters' Friendly Society, and Almanack. Halifax, 1864. 8. Reports of the Registrar of Friendly Societies in England. 1855-64. TH HE cultivation of the habit of prudent self-reliance amongst the great body of the people is justly regarded as one of the principal needs of our time. Every individual, however humble his social position may be, is the better for knowing and feeling that his happiness necessarily depends in a great measure upon his own industry, economy, and providence. Any attempt to elevate a people mainly by charity must always fail, chiefly because it tends to sap the foundations of self-respect, if it do not break down the very outworks of virtue itself. There is indeed reason to fear that some forms of benevolence, however wellmeant, tend to create the very evils they are designed to cure, and to encourage the poorer classes in the habit of dependence upon the charity of others, to the neglect of those far healthier means of social well-being which lie within their own power. It is because the benefit societies of the working classes are calculated to cherish the habit of genuine self-reliance and selfrespect, that we consider them eminently worthy of public encouragement. encouragement. Viewed in this light they are entitled to be regarded as among the most important economic institutions of our time. They exercise an amount of social influence which it would be difficult to over-estimate. It is certainly a striking fact that some three millions of working men, representing an aggregate of about ten millions of the population of these islands, should have spontaneously organised themselves into voluntary associations for the purpose of mutual support in time of sickness and distress. Any political organisation, embracing but a tithe of the number, would probably have excited more public attention than this has done, although the moral and social influences which the benefit societies exercise are of vastly greater importance. These associations appear to us to afford highly favourable indications of the soundness of character of the common people of England. They are the outgrowth in a great measure of the English love of self-government and social independence; in illustration of which remark it may be stated, that whereas in France only one person in seventy-six is found belonging to a benefit society, and in Belgium one in sixty-four, the proportion in England is found to be one in nine.* The English societies are said to possess aggregate reserves of capital amounting to nearly twenty millions sterling, and they distribute relief amongst their members, provided by voluntary contributions out of their weekly earnings, to the amount of above two millions yearly. It is true that these benefit societies have numerous defects. There are faults in the details of their organisation and management, whilst many of them are financially unsound. Like other institutions in their early stages, they have been tentative and in a great measure empirical, more especially as regards their rates of contribution and allowances of sick relief. The rates have in many instances been fixed too low in proportion to the benefits allowed, and hence the box has so often been declared to be closed. But life assurance societies themselves had to undergo the same discipline of occasional failure, and the operation of winding up' has been by no means unknown even to these respectable organisations. Indeed, it appears from Parliamentary returns that between 1844 and 1859 no fewer than 219 life offices were 'wound up,' or other It is well known that almost every village and hamlet in England and Wales has its friendly society, while the towns and cities have them by hundreds. There is no doubt that there are more friendly societies for mutual relief in sickness, &c., in England and Wales than in the whole of the rest of Europe or elsewhere.-Registrar's Report, 1857. wise ceased to exist, and in not a few cases the expenses of management were found to have swallowed up the entire income. In their failures, therefore, the conductors of benefit societies have not stood alone. To quote the words of the Registrar in a recent Report: 'Though the information thus far obtained is not very encouraging as to the general system of management, on the whole, perhaps, the results of the investments of the poor thus shown are not worse than those which noblemen, members of Parliament, merchants, professed financiers, and speculators have contrived to attain in their management of railways, joint-stock banks, and enterprises of all kinds.' The truth is, the science of vital statistics is of comparatively modern date, and it need not be matter of surprise if working men, in constituting their benefit societies, have made mistakes alike in their rates, benefits, and system of management. It is also right to bear in mind that many of the existing friendly societies were in operation long before the subject of mutual assurance had attracted the special attention of scientific men, and led to that large accumulation of experience as to the expectancy of life and the probabilities of sickness which forms the basis of the tables of the best offices. The workmen's societies originated for the most part in a common want, felt by persons of small means unable to accumulate any considerable store of savings to provide against destitution in the event of disablement by disease or accident. At the beginning of life, persons earning their bread by daily labour are able to save money with difficulty. Unavoidable expenses absorb their limited means and press heavily on their income. When unable to work, any little store they may have accumulated is soon spent, and if they have a family to maintain, there is then no choice before them but destitution, begging, or recourse to the poor-rates. In their desire to avoid either of these alternatives, they have contrived the expedient of the benefit society. By combining and putting a large number of small contributions together, they have found it practicable thus to provide a fund sufficiently large to meet their ordinary requirements during sickness. Without any scientific help whatever, and for a long time comparatively unnoticed by the wealthier classes, the labouring people entered into arrangements of this sort for mutual help, groping their way rather than seeing it clearly before them, and trying honestly to provide for the contingencies of the present rather than to anticipate the wants of the future. In this way most of these societies were originally started, and that they have proved on the whole satisfactory in their results is, we think, obvious from their rapid extension in im proved proved forms, more particularly of late years, in all parts of the kingdom. The Benefit Society may be regarded as an association of persons of the humbler classes for the purpose mainly of preserving each other from destitution during sickness. By its means the families of such workmen as do not enjoy an average degree of health are made sharers in the better fortune of those who do. The inequalities of life and health are thus in some measure compensated, while the social independence of the sufferers is preserved until they are restored to their usual healthy working condition. The means by which this is accomplished are very simple. Each member contributes to a common fund at the rate of so much a week, and out of this fund the stipulated allowance is paid. Most benefit societies have also a Widows' and Orphans' Fund, raised in like manner, out of which a sum is paid to the survivors of members at their death. It will be obvious that such organizations, however faulty they may be in detail, cannot fail to exercise a most beneficial influence upon society at large. The fact that one of such associations, the Manchester Unity of Odd Fellows, distributes in sick relief and payments of sums at death about 300,0007. a-year, exhibits the large amount of distress which they alleviate, and illustrates in a striking light their beneficial action on the class for whom and by whom they have been established. By their means working men are enabled to secure the results of economy at a comparatively small cost. For, mutual assurance is economy in its most economical form; and, as exhibited in Benefit, Friendly, and Mutual Assurance Societies generally, it presents merely another illustration of that power of co-operation which is working out such extraordinary results in all departments of society, and is in fact but another name for Civilization. The early history of benefit societies is somewhat obscure. Attempts have been made to invest them with a halo of antiquity, but to little purpose. Working men are, however, to be excused for sharing in that regard for things ancient and venerable which characterizes men in every class of society, not excepting the highest. But the claim put forward by some writers in behalf of the Loyal Ancient Independent Order of Odd Fellows, of having been founded A.D. 55, in the reign of the Emperor Nero, will not bear investigation. Nor can we give any credit to the historical claims of that still more ancient order, The Antediluvians.' It is, nevertheless, a curious fact that so large a proportion of what are called the Secret Orders denominate themselves 'Ancient.' Thus, there are The Ancient Order Order of Foresters, The Ancient Druids, The Ancient Mariners, The Ancient Britons, The Ancient Fraternity of Gardeners, The Loyal Ancient Shepherds, and even an Ancient Order of Buffaloes. Besides these, are The Order of the Ark, The Rechabites and Templars of Nazareth (Teetotallers), The Order of the Golden Fleece, The Order of the Peaceful Dove, The Knights Templars, The Knights of Malta, and many more societies of the same sort, equally venerable—at least in name. It is difficult to believe, on looking over these high-sounding titles, that the simple object of the Order is to distribute sick relief amongst the members, and payments to widows and orphans at their death. Yet that is all. Even that apparently terrible body, The Ancient Order of Buffaloes, is merely an organization of working men to provide a common fund by fortnightly payments of 8d., out of which 10s. a week is allowed to the contributors during sickness. Although by far the greater number of the benefit societies now in existence are of comparatively recent origin, there is reason to believe that associations of a similar kind were in existence in England at an early period. The Gilds had their origin in an ancient Saxon law, and were so called from the word Gilden, or Gelden (to pay), because each Gild brother was required to contribute towards the funds of the society, which were partly employed in the relief of necessitous members. Many of them were of a religious character, and on stated festival days masses were said and psalms were sung for the benefit of the brethren, dead and living. Hickes, in his Thesaurus,' gives some curious translations of old Saxon Gild deeds, exhibiting their nature and objects. Thus, in the case of a Cambridge Gild, all the members were required to swear by the holy reliques. Other Gilds were established by merchants and tradesmen for purposes of mutual assistance and protection. These were regarded with much favour by the early English monarchs, who granted them many privileges; and there were few towns of importance which were not provided with a hall for the meetings of the Gilds. They afterwards became merged in the corporations of the chartered boroughs, and elected members to serve them in Parliament; being the first depositaries of political power in towns. The rules of some of these ancient fraternities have been preserved, from which it appears that they were a sort of mutual assurance societies as well as trades protection societies. Dugdale quotes the ordinances of the St. Catherine's Gild at Coventry (founded in the reign of Edward III.) as manifesting the decent government, ceremony, devotion, charity, and amity of his time.' The Gild supported all sick and infirm brethren according |