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GERMANIA

NEW METHOD OF PROTECTING BUILDINGS FROM LIGHTNING.

SPARE THE ROD AND SPOIL THE HOUSE! Lightning Destroys. Shall it be Your House or a Pound of Copper?

PROTECTION FROM LIGHTNING.

What is the Problem?

IN seeking a means of protection from lightning-discharges, we have in view two objects, the one the prevention of damage to buildings, and the other the prevention of injury to life. In order to destroy a building in whole or in part, it is necessary that work should be done; that is, as physicists express it, energy is required. Just before the lightning-discharge takes place, the energy capable of doing the damage which we seek to prevent exists in the column of air extending from the cloud to the earth in some form that makes it capable of appearing as what we call electricity. We will therefore call it electrical energy. What this electrical energy is, it is not necessary for us to consider in this place; but that it exists there can be no doubt, as it manifests itself in the destruction of buildings. The problem that we have to deal with, therefore, is the conversion of this energy into some other form, and the accomplishment of this in such a way as shall result in the least injury to property and life.

Why Have the Old Rods Failed?

When lightning-rods were first proposed, the science of energetics was entirely undeveloped; that is to say, in the middle of the last century scientific men had not come to recognize the fact that the different forms of energyheat, electricity, mechanical power, etc.-were convertible one into the other, and that each could produce just so much of each of the other forms, and no more. The doctrine of the conservation and correlation of energy was first clearly worked out in the early part of this century. There were, however, some facts known in regard to electricity a hundred and forty years ago; and among these were the attracting power of points for an electric spark, and the conducting power of metals. Lightning-rods were therefore introduced with the idea that the electricity existing in the lightning-discharge could be conveyed around the building which it was proposed to protect, and that the building would thus be saved.

The question as to dissipation of the energy involved was entirely ignored, naturally; and from that time to this, in spite of the best endeavors of these Interested, lightning-rods constructed in accordance with Franklin's principle have not furnished satisfactory protection. The reason for this is apparent when it is considered that the electrical energy existing in the atmosphere before the discharge, or, more exactly, in the column of dielectric from the cloud to the earth, above referred to, reaches its maximum value on the surface of the conductors that chance to be within the column of dielectric; so that the greatest display of energy will be on the surface of the very lightningrods that were meant to protect, and damage results, as so often proves to be the case.

It will be understood, of course, that this display of energy on the surface of the old lightning-rods is aided by their being more or less insulated from the earth, but in any event the very existence of such a mass of metal as an old lightning-rod can only tend to produce a disastrous dissipation of electrical energy upon its surface,-"to draw the lightning," as it is so commonly put.

Is there a Better Means of Protection?

Having cleared our minds, therefore, of any idea of conducting electricity, and keeping clearly in view the fact that in providing protection against lightning we must furnish some means by which the electrical energy may be harmlessly dissipated, the question arises, "Cau an improved form be given to the rod so that it shall aid in this dissipation ? "

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As the electrical energy involved manifests itself on the surface of conductors, the improved rod should be metallic; but, instead of making a large rod, suppose that we make it comparatively small in size, so that the tal amount of metal running from the top of the house to some point a little below the foundations shall not exceed one pound. Suppose, again, that we introduce numerous insulating joints in this rod. We shall then have a rod that experience shows will be readily destroyed-will be readily dissipated -- when a discharge takes place; ani it will be evident, that, so far as the electrical energy is consumed in doing this, there will be the less to do other damage.

The only point that remains to be proved as to the utility of such a rod is to show that the dissipation of such a conductor does not tend to injure other bodies in its immediate vicinity. On this point I can only say that I have found no case where such a conductor (for instance, a bell wire) has been dissipated, even if resting against a plastered wall, where there has been any material damage done to surrounding objects.

Of course, it is readily understood that such an explosion cannot take place in a confined space without the rupture of the walls (the wire cannot be boarded over); but in every case that I have found recorded this dissipation takes place just as gunpowder burns when spread on a board. The objects against which the conductor rests may be stained, but they are not shattered, I would therefore make clear this distinction between the action of electrical energy when dissipated on the surface of a large conductor and when dissipated on the surface of a comparatively small or easily dissipated conductor. When dissipated on the surface of a large conductor, a conductor so strong as to resist the explosive effect,-damage results to objects around. When dissipated on the surface of a small conductor, the conductor goes, but the other objects around are saved

A Typical Case of the Action of a Small Conductor. Franklin, in a letter to Collinson read before the London Royal Society, Dec. 18, 1755, describing the partial destruction by lightning of a church-tower at Newbury, Mass., wrote, "Near the bell was fixed an iron hammer to strike the hours; and from the tail of the hammer a wire went down through a small gimlet-hole in the floor that the bell stood upon, and through a second floor in like manner; then horizontally under and near the plastered ceiling of that second floor, till it came near a plastered wall; then down by the side of that wall to a clock, which stood about twenty feet below the bell. The wire was not bigger than a common knitting needle. The spire was split all to pieces by the lightning, and the parts flung in all directions over the square in which the church stood, so that nothing remained above the bell. The lightning passed between the hammer and the clock in the above-mentioned wire, without hurting either of the floors, or having any effect upon them (except making the gimlet-holes, through which the wire passed, a little bigger), and without hurting the plastered wall, or any part of the building, so far as the aforesaid wire and the pendulum-wire of the clock extended; which latter wire was about the thickness of a goose-quill. From the end of the pendulum, down quite to the ground, the building was exceedingly rent and damaged.... No part of the aforementioned long, small wire, between the clock and the hammer, could be found, except about two inches that hung to the tail of the hammer, and about as much that was fastened to the clock; the rest being exploded, and its particles dissipated in smoke and air, as gunpowder is by common fire, and had only left a black smutty track on the plaste ing, three or four inches broad, darkest in the middle, and fainter towards the edges, all along the ceiling, under which it passed, and down the wall." One hundred feet of the Hodges Patent Lightning Dispeller (made under patents of N. D. C. Hodges, Editor of Science) will be mailed, postpaid, to any address, on receipt of five dollars ($5).

Correspondence solicited. Agents wanted. AMERICAN LIGHTNING PROTECTION CO., 874 Broadway, New York Citv.

NEW YORK, AUGUST 11, 1893.

BOTANY AT THE FAIR.

BY H. L. BOLLEY, FARGO, NORTH DAKOTA.

Aside from the extensive opportunities for notes and observations upon miscellaneous herbaria and growing plants, collected from all parts of the earth, which are open to visitors of the Fair, it may not be inappropriate to note some of the special attractions for such persons as are botanically inclined.

While the name Horticulture has the place of honor upon the great plant house in the west portion of the Park, the place is none the less of botanical interest. Indeed, if adverse criticism is at all deserved in this department, it would be along the line that it is more a huge botanic garden than a horticultural show.

The amateur botanist, who, at his place of training, has complained that he has not been afforded sufficient opportunity for observation upon varied plant life, may in this building introduce himself to almost all known varieties of cultivated flowering and ornamental plants, which are representative of all lands. It is useless to attempt citations. None shown, however, are of more interest than the specimens representative of dwarfing methods, as conducted by the Japanese gardeners.

Grasses: Each exhibitor, fully understanding the importance of grasses and forage plants in an agricultural exhibit, has made careful effort to have his State or region fully represented as to its capabilities of producing these lines of plants. The great agricultural hall and the different State and national buildings thus present, in the aggregate, a list of native and cultivated grasses, more extensive as to numbers and more properly prepared for educational effect as to their qualities, form, growth, characteristics, etc., than it has ever previously been possible for any one to examine. Many of the States have full displays in bunch form, showing all characters, roots, leaves and seeds; while, again, ordinary herbarium specimens are to be noted almost anywhere one may go in the agricultural exhibits.

College and Experiment Station Erhibit: Located in the southeast corner of the agricultural building is the collective exhibit of agricultural colleges and experiment stations. Here again in the botanical alcove the varied nature of the exhibits makes it probable that few may pass through without noticing something individually interesting. Necessarily, the above is arranged more for show purposes than as a working laboratory, yet very much of the best work that has been done at the different stations is here represented, either by work in actual operation, apparatus, or by results graphically displayed. There are numerous photographs and drawings representing results gained in accurate experimental tests, as, for example, graphic results in crossing, by L. H. Bailey; results obtained in spraying for potato rot, by L. R.

Jones, and many others. Photographs are shown of European and other foreign botanists, together with nearly a full list of our experimental botanists.

All the more common plant diseases are represented by pathological specimens, drawings, microphotographs and maps of distribution. This exhibit is a most varied and interesting one, containing, aside from the numerous specimens representing rusts, smuts, mildews, bacterial diseases, etc., many illustrations of results gained in prevention of plant diseases, such, for example, as grape rot, apple scab, potato rot and potato scab.

Different methods of seed-testing are in operation, displaying, among others, the following pieces: Nobbe's apparatus, Kiel-Zurich-Geneva germinator, the North Carolina seedpan, and E. S. Goff's various improved appliances. There are also illustrations of water and sand cultures, and various appliances and specimens too numerous to be listed at this time, among which may be noted B. D. Halsted's weeds and weed seeds, an exhibit of root tubercules upon native legumes, good microscopic exhibits, and T. L. Scribner's complete micro-photographic outfit.

Plant Physiology: A case full of apparatus for the study of special questions in plant physiology, prepared by Prof. J. C. Arthur, is worthy of special notice by any one who may pass through the laboratory. With the exception of a few standard pieces, all the different appliances had their origin and construction in the Purdue laboratories, and in finish are elegant examples of student work. Only mention may be made of a few of the more interesting pieces. Suffice it to say that probably no laboratory in the country has at this time an equally interesting collection of original or modified pieces for this sort of work. Noticeable among these are the following: Respiration appliances, a modification of Sach's method for determination of amount of carbon dioxide exhaled by plants; an apparatus for the comparison of normal and intramolecular breathing of seedlings, and one to illustrate intramolecular breathing of yeast in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide gas; auxanometers of three types of construction; chuostats of common type and one of intermittent action. This last piece is new and original, of elegant construction, and is especially applicable to the study of the force of habit as evidenced in plant life. There are dynamometers of various types for measuring various plant forces; transpiration pieces, including a potetometer for the quantitative determination of the amount of water given off by a given leaf surface in a given length of time; a poroscope; root-pressure appliances, and many smaller pieces, which are quantitative in their results. With all these contents, this case is worthy of the close consideration of any person interested in plant physiology. If all the pieces are not as suited to their work as might be wished, they are at least much to be preferred to those with which most of us have worked, and indicate future possibilities of more accurate results in this field of botany. Finally, there is a chance for most interesting study in two bacteriological laboratories, each fitted with all the latest and more essential appliances.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIANA. Ar the last meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science, at Terre Haute, a Biological Survey was established for the State of Indiana, and Prof. Lucien M. Underwood, Greencastle, Ind., Division of Botany; Prof. Carl H. Eigenmann, Bloomington, Ind., Division of Zoology; Prof. Vernon F. Marsters, Bloomington, Ind., Division of Palæontology, were appointed Directors to organize the survey and outline the preliminary work ordered by the Academy.

It is the purpose of the survey: (1) To ascertain what has already been accomplished in the direction of making known the character and extent of the life of the State, and to this end to prepare a complete bibliography of materials bearing on the botany, zoology and palæontology of Indiana, to be published by the Academy. (2) To associate the various workers throughout the State, and so correlate their labors that all will work together towards a definite end, and ultimately accomplish the main purpose of the survey, namely, the making known of the entire fauna and flora of Indiana, its extent, its distribution, its biological relations, and its economic importance. (3) To stimulate the teachers of biology throughout the State to encourage in their pupils the accumulation of material, which shall make known the local extent and distribution of life-forms, and thus contribute facts that will be useful in the survey and at the same time develop acute observers for continuing the study of the natural resources of the State. It is thus intended that the colleges and secondary schools will form with the survey a mutually helpful relation. (4) Ultimately to secure for the Academy a collection that will illustrate the biology of the State. Until such collection can be otherwise provided for, the Academy will designate certain public or private collections where accumulated material may be deposited temporarily. Material sent to the directors will be thus held for the future disposition of the Academy.

It is earnestly requested that all persons interested in any department of biological work will place

themselves in relations with the Directors of the survey at once in order that their work may be made to contribute the most effectively to the public good, and in order that the Directors may know on whom they may depend for gaining information from various portions of the State. All contributions from persons interested will be properly credited in the reports of the survey. Correspondence is solicited with the director of the particular branch in which any one is interested, and such directions in regard to collecting and sending material will be given on application. By the assistance of the Smithsonian Institution, the directors are able to send printed directions for collecting to such as apply for them. In ordering these it will be necessary to specify in what particular branch information is desired.

It is the purpose of the Division of Botany during the present year to make such additions and corrections to the published "Catalogue of the Plants of Indiana" as are possible, and to secure definite information regarding the distribution of such rare forms as are there published. Specimens illustrating the distribution or occurrence of any plant within the limits of the State must be deposited with the survey before any notice of their belonging to the state flora can be published. This will insure the ability to verify in future any fact published by the survey. In sending such material it is desirable that notes on the station, habitat, range and abundance of the plant be noted, together with any other information that will be of value. In addition to the flowering plants and ferns covered in the above, it is the intention of the Division to commence the study of the distribution of the lower cryptogams, concerning which almost nothing has been published from Indiana. While collections will be made of

even

all forms, special attention will be given at present to the study of (1) Mosses, (2) Hepaticæ, and (3) Parasitic Fungi. Specimens are earnestly desired of all species, those that are most common, from all portions of the State. It is desirable to state with each species the data indicated above, with particular reference to the habitat. In the case of parasitic fungi, it is necessary to indicate the host and to include sufficient quantity of the host plant, that doubtful determinations may be verified. The Director has been promised the assistance of specialists in the study of material accumulated.

The leading aim of the Division of Zoology during the season will be the compilation of a complete bibliography of the vertebrates of Indiana and of as many invertebrates as can be provided for.

At the same time any material showing the distribution of animals in the State is especially desirable. To determine the distribution, complete collections of the vertebrates of as many localities as possible should be made. Collections should always accompany notes, so that the observations may be verified by some specialist.

No opportunity should be neglected to observe the and breeding habits and seasons, the animal with young should, whenever possible, be preserved and forwarded to the Director, who will transmit it to the proper authority for record.

Another subject which should receive attention is the migration, or seasonal appearance and disappearance of mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes.

The next meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science will be held in Adelaide, South Australia, commencing on September 25. The Association has now been in existence since 1888. Four meetings have been held, viz.: In September, 1888, at Sydney-President, H. C. Russell, C. M. G., B. A., F. R. S., Government Astronomer, N. S. W.; in January, 1890, at Melbourne-President, Baron F. von Mueller, K. C. M. G., Ph. D., F. R. S.; in January, 1891, at ChristchurchPresident, Sir James Hector, K. C. M. G., M. D., F. R. S.; in January, 1892, Hobart-President, His Excellency Sir Robert Hamilton, K. C. B. The meeting in Adelaide will be presided over by Ralph Tate, F. L. S., F. G. S., Professor of Natural Science at the University of Adelaide. Since its commencement the Association has grown steadily and now numbers about 900 members. The work is divided into sections as in the British Association, whose rules on most points have been closely followed. The Presidents of sections for the Adelaide session are: Section A. -Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics: H. C. Russell, C. M. G., B. A., F. R. S., Government Astronomer of New South Wales; Section B.-Chemistry: C. N. Hake, Chief Inspector of Explosives, Victoria; Section C.-Geology and Mineralogy: Sir James Hector, K. C. M. G., M. D., F. R. S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand; Section D.-Biology: C. W. De Vis, Curator of the Erisbane Museum; Section E.-Geography: A. C. Macdonald, F. R. G. S., Hon. Secretary of the Victorian Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia; Section F.-Ethnology and Anthropology: Rev. S. Ella, New South Wales; Section G.-Economic Science and Agriculture: H. C. L. Anderson, M. A., Director of Agriculture, New South Wales; Section H.-Engineering and Architecture: J. R. Scott, Lecturer-in-Charge of the School of Engineering, Canterbury College, Christchurch, New Zealand; Section I.-Sanitary Science and Hygiene: A. Mault, Secretary to the Central Board of Health, Tasmania; Section J.-Mental Science and Education: Henry Laurie, LL. D., Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy at the University of Melbourne.

SCIENCE:

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PROGRESS IN SANITARY SCIENCE IN MASSACHU

SETTS.

BY GEORGE W. FULLER, LAWRENCE, MASS.

THE State Board of Health of Massachusetts, in addition to the ordinary duties devolving upon such a Board, have made much progress during the past six years in the study of many important problems in sanitary science.

In 1886 the Legislature made provisions (Chap. 274 of the Acts of 1886) that "the State Board of Health shall have the general oversight and care of all inland waters.

Said Board shall, from time to time, as it may deem expedient, cause examinations of the said waters to be made for the purpose of ascertaining whether the same are adapted for use as sources of domestic water supplies or are in a condition likely to impair the interests of the public or persons lawfully using the same, or imperil the public health. It shall recommend measures for prevention of the pollution of such waters, and for removal of substances and causes of every kind which may be liable to cause pollution thereof, in order to protect and develop the rights and property of the Commonwealth therein and to protect the public health. It shall have authority to conduct experiments to determine the best practicable methods of purification of drainage or disposal of refuse arising from manufacturing and other industrial establishments. For the purposes aforesaid it may employ such expert assistance as may be necessary.

"It shall from time to time consult with and advise the authorities of cities and towns, or with corporations, firms or individuals either already having or intending to introduce systems of water supply or sewerage, as to the most appropriate source of supply, the best practicable method. of assuring purity thereof or of disposing of their sewage, having regard to the present and prospective needs and interests of other cities, towns, corporations, firms or individuals which may be affected thereby. All such authorities, corporations, firms and individuals are hereby required to give notice to said Board of their intentions in the premises, and to submit for its advice outlines of their proposed plans or schemes in relation to water supply and disposal of drainage or refuse."

The Legislature in 1888 made further provisions (Chapter 375 of the Acts of 1888) that "all petitions to the Legislature for authority to introduce a system of water sup

ply, drainage or sewerage, shall be accompanied by a copy of the recommendation and advice of the said Board thereon."

In compliance with these provisions there was established by the Board an engineering department, whose main work may be divided into two classes: (1) The examination of proposed plans or schemes of water supply or sewerage submitted by the various cities and towns; (2) the examination of existing water supplies and inland waters of the State with reference to their purity.

With regard to the work of the first class it is to be noted that from July, 1886, when the act relating to water supply and sewerage first went into operation, up to January 1, 1893, there have been received 228 applications for advice. In the course of the investigations, instituted to develop the facts required as a basis for sound advice to the cities and towns, many valuable data have been obtained. The capacity, when fully developed, of sources of water supply drawn from ponds, lakes and streams, has been studied individually and in relation to the future needs of the great centres of population. Probable and comparative costs of different systems have been made; drainage areas have been surveyed, records of rainfall, temperatures, rates of increase of population and of consumption of water per capita have been kept and studied. All of these data have not only been of aid in the past but are also of great value for future reference.

Beginning in June, 1887, monthly analyses have been made of water from all the water supplies of the State, and of the more important rivers and other inland waters. At the outset every public water supply was visited by the engineers of the Board; a description and history of the different works were obtained; places for taking samples of water were chosen, and methods to be followed were explained to local officials. Much information was also gathered with regard to the physical characteristics of the water supplies, such as the density of population on drainage areas, amount of polluting matter entering the streams, volume of water flowing, and temperatures of water. In addition to the chemical analyses which are made in the laboratories of the Board in Boston, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, examinations are made of the grosser forms of microscopic life, with the view to establish the relation between the micro-organisms and odors present in certain drinking waters. Bacterial analyses are also made from time to time.

Carefully prepared reports have been made of the results of these investigations. An idea of the nature of the work done can perhaps be best learned by looking at the following list of subjects, which are among those discussed in the annual and special reports:

A Summary of Water Supply Statistics.
Classification of the Drinking Waters of the State.
Examination of Spring Waters.

Pollution and Self-Purification of Streams.
Typhoid Fever in its Relation to Water Supplies.
Suggestions as to the Selection of Sources of Water
Supply.

Dissolved Oxygen in Waters of Ponds and Reservoirs at Different Depths.

Effect of Aeration of Natural Waters.

The Relation of Organisms and Odors in Natural Waters.

The Seasonal Distribution of Organisms.

In 1887 the Board established an Experiment Station at Lawrence. The object of this was to learn how to purify sewage and water. The Station was designed and its work planned by Mr. Hiram F. Mills, A. M., C. E., chairman of the Committtee of the Board on Water Supply and Sewerage.

Experimental filters were constructed of different mate