termined upon. The successful wells in the Torrey and Sespé cañons have since been located upon the same principle. See the figure.

It is also a fact worth noting that the tunnels driven into the Sulphur Mountain by Wheeler in 1865, the location of which I have elsewhere described, have yielded oil continuously from that time to this and are still yielding oil in moderate quantity.'

The oil having been obtained, a refinery was constructed at Santa Paula and a pail of the product manufactured into various articles for which a market could be secured. Unlike the natural oils obtained from springs, the oils from wells contained a considerable proportion of naphtha, even light enough to be suitable for use as gasoline. illuminating oils are produced. The heavier naphthas and oils of a density suitable for illuminating oil are separated and sold without treatment as gas oil. A considerable proportion is then run off as crude lubricating oil, and the

Νο

for structures, superior both in durability and appearance to any ordinary forni of shingle.

This pure asphaltum is also used as a basis for paints and for coating paper, its purity as bitumen and its freedom from coke and other injurious substances rendering it greatly superior to coke, pitch and many cheaper' and undesirable forms of natural bitumen.

Printer's ink of very superior quality is also made one of the products of this remarkable technology.

Besides the refinery at Santa Paula there is another es- . tablishment at Alameda Point, in San Francisco harbor, where oils from this region are given similar treatment.

This industry is in its infancy. The purposes to which these remarkable products can be applied are only partially known and very imperfectly appreciated. It is not only my intention to call attention to the fulfilment of predictions made in 1866, that the oil interests of Southern California would ultimately yield a profitable return upon

residue remaining in the still is run out and allowed to cool. This residue is a hard, brilliant, black solid. It is made for different purposes of different grades and degrees of hardness, the hardness depending upon the amount of the crude lubricating oil that is allowed to remain in the residuum. This material is a very pure (almost chemically pure) asphaltum and possesses some peculiar and very valuable properties. Straw board or wood pulp may be saturated with it and rendered nearly inert to acids and alkalies unless in concentrated solution. Straw board cut in suitable sizes may be saturated with it and made into a solid water-proof shingle that when painted forms an elegant and durable external covering

Reports of the Tenth Census of the United States, Vol. X., Petroleum, p. 68, plate XI. Geological Survey of California, Geology, Vol. II., appendix p.

INTERPRETATION OF MAYA GLYPHS BY THEIR PHONETIC ELEMENTS.—PART II.

BY HILBORNE T. CRESSON, A.M., M.D. PROCEEDING with the analyses begun in Part I of this article, there is on Plate II, fig. 14, a glyph which appears in the Codex Cortesianus, Plate 16, among a series of five glyphs just above an ideo-phonetic drawing of Hun Kimil. In fig. 171, Plate I (see Science, No. 567, vol. xxii.), attention has already been called to one of this series of glyphs and the suggestion made that the phonetic elements composing it recall the name of Kukulkan. It is but a variant of fig. 160, Plate I; see analysis of the glyph given in Part I of this article. The glyph to the left of this, the analysis of which is given on Plate II, figs. 226, 227, 228 to 234, reads ah chun Kan, and by reference to the Codex Cortesianus, Plate 16, it will be seen that there is still another which is a variant of it, repeating ah-chun-can. Next to it, reading from right to left, is the glyph referred to above, fig. 14, which we analyze on Plate II, figs. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, as Xakan-ik="the revolving wind." Reference will be made to this presently. The last of the series (See Plate 16, Cortesianus) is the glyph Plate II, figs. 240 to 245, the elements of which, as in the glyphs shown at figs. I to 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 of the plate (see day signs of Landa; Troano 6), express "Hun-ki"; the m and il do not seem to be expressed in any of the glyphs of Hun-Kimil. Other examples of abbreviation are to be remarked, as in the day sign Muluc, generally expressed "u-uk," and in the day sign Lamat, generally expressed "Lamak," at times "am-ak" (see glyphs day sign Lamak in Chilan Balam of Kaua); at times "ach" or "ak" (see Troano 6, 11, 18, 30, 31, 32, 34). In looking over a series of analyses of the day signs, all of which interpreted by my list of phonetic elements have yielded the names suggested by Landa, the names of the day signs Muluc and Lamat are less clearly expressed by the elements composing them than those of the other day signs. The glyph fig. 10, Plate II, taken from the Chilan Balam of Kaua, gives a series of these elements which are similar to those we have derived from the codices; using the elements fig. 11 as hun, and fig. 12 as un, we obtain "hun" or "hu-un "hun. The syllable Ki is derived from the value assigned this element on my phonetic list (see Part I of this article, Science, No. 567, page 326), Plate I, figs. 1 and 2 ka v/s; thus: Ka, Ke, Ki. Vowel fluctuation, I repeat, must not be overlooked in this method of interpretation now described by me; in fact it is my opinion that the Maya glyphs can never be interpreted without considering it as an important factor in the work. The method of the Touaregs of the Sahara in deciphering their manuscripts affords a clue, for it is said that when the natives undertake this difficult task they begin by spelling the consonants aloud . . . applying to them in succession the various vowels until a word is found that makes sense. In fact, it is absolutely necessary to proceed in a like manner in the Maya script, only, instead of chanting, the combinations can be worked out with pencil and paper. In an endeavor to interpret a series of glyphs the amount of labor that this requires can be duly appreciated. The rest of this article will simply be devoted to an explanation of these fluctuations, adding, where necessary, a few remarks upon the interpretations made.

Fig. 21 is a well known compound glyph, variants of which frequently appear in the hieratic script and the codices, especially in the Peresianus (Plates 2 to 10). The phonetic elements of one of its components, Fig. 22, it will be seen by reference to figs. 23, 24, 25, Plate II=bacab. It is a variant of the day sign Been and was evidently used by the scribe to express be, derived from its phonetic value

of ba v/s The next component is fig. 26, where we have the curved aspirate line, fig. 27=xa v/s, cha v/s, the serpent curve, fig. 28=Kan, chan, Ka v/s, and the parallel line=ik, derived from one of its values of ka v/s. We have here a repetition in a new combination of the word xakau-ik "The Revolving Wind," which has already been suggested by the glyph fig. 14, Plate II. The element fig. 30 is in fact closely allied to the x, ch, and sh sounds, the curved element, fig. 28, supplying the monosyllable Kan; this associated with the curved aspirate line, fig. 127, gives xan or xakan or shakan. The rest of the phonetic elements composing this glyph, fig. 31, repeats ik, fig. 32=cha, fig. 33=kan, fig. 35=ik. The enclosing outline of this glyph is not unlike the single curved Kan line, fig. 34, and it seems like a variant of fig. 228, also a Kan element and a component of the compound glyph, fig. 226, with the element fig. 227 placed above, this element, fig. 227, also appearing in fig. 21, fig. 32, just above fig. 33. The enclosing outlines of certain glyphs have at times an ideographic significance which it would be well for Maya paleographers to bear in mind. In this case fig. 33 has for its principal phonetic element a motive obtained from the serpent line, fig. 192, Plate I, Science No. 567; see also fig. 122, Plate I. The outline enclosing it is adapted to the curve of this element and is evidently a determinative sign, being purely ideographic. The glyph fig. 27, therefore, repeats Bacab_xakan_ik=" Bacab of the revolving wind," or, still better, "Of the shifting or changing wind." The sense intended is evidently Bacab="ruler,” xakan ik="changing wind," or "wind that blows from the cardinal points." As this glyph is intimately associated with the bacab and chak cult in the Peresianus, the interpretation, it cannot be denied, is a probable one. If space permitted much interesting material, the results of analyses of glyphs in other codices, could be brought to support the truth of the interpretation given.

=

Fig. 36 is a glyph which appears in the Codex Peresianus, Plate 17. Its phonetic elements and their values are given in figs. 37, 38, 39, 40=xakan ik, a third repetition of this sentence. The glyph fig. 36, Plate II, is attached to the support of a representation of a straw house (xanil-na); see Plate 17, Peresianus. Underneath the house is the representation of Kukulkan in the act of turning over or revolving, symbolizing the sentence xakan-ik (or it may be chak, kan, ik Chak, or "God of Serpents and Wind"). There are some interesting facts in connection with this figure, which is ideo-phonetic. Its ideographic sense, the action of revolving, has just been suggested. The color of the garment covering the body of the chak is green=xan, on which are small squares of a darker green color arranged by twos (Ca) and by fours (= Kan), suggesting xakan; the black squares attached to the roof arranged in pairs= Ka v/s (2) or ik, together with the red color back of the figure (=chac) and the yellow colors of the straw roof (Kan=yellow). All of these accessories are ikonomatic and recall Chak-kan-ik or xakan-ik, supporting the interpretation that we have made of the glyph fig. 36, Plate II, which is attached to the support of the roof of the straw house. I am loth to consider all of these facts the result of mere accident; there is too much method in their arrangement. The colors used are without doubt ikonomatic. On Plates 15, 16, 17, 18, Peresianus, there are many repetitions of the words, chak-ikal" the hurricane" and "xakan-ik"="the revolving" or "whirlwind." find the sentences repeated in the Dresden Codex and in certain parts of the script of Palenque-notably on the bas-reliefs representing Kukul-kan as Chak of Water and Wind, that at one time stood at the right and left of the doorway of the temple of the Four Winds and Chaks at Palenque (so called Temple of the Cross); "the cross" being simply, as Brinton first suggested, a wind symbol.

We

Before proceeding further, it must be remarked that in fig. 40, Plate II, we have given the color black, which plays such a conspicuous part in the glyphi, fig. 36, the phonetic value of ek or ik. It frequently appears witn these phonetic values in Maya script, and it is my opinion that red may also have the phonetic value of Chac, cha v/s, yellow Kan, ka v/s, and green xan, xa v/s. It will be impossible to discuss the subject here; we leave the suggestion to time to decide, but attention is called to the fact that color seems to be ikonomatic in Maya script. Above the ideo-phonetic figure in Plate 17, Peresianus, (a compound of ideographic suggestion and phonetic elements), is a series of glyphs whose analyses are made on Plate II, figs. 41 to73. It will be observed that many of the phonetic values assigned by me to certain phonetic elements are being repeated in new combinations with probable results. The interpretation given is u-chak Kukulkan, chakikal, Chakanik. There are two more glyphs in this series on Plate 17 (Peresianus), but as they are somewhat erased it would be necessary to compare them with others on Plates 15, 16. 18, (Peresianus), and other parts of this codex, which is here impossible. The series of glyphs on all of the plates referred to, viz.: 15, 16, 17, 18 (Peresianus), read from the lower right hand glyph toward the left, thus:

F. ED. C BA

and repeat name of Kukulkan with reference to his title of God of Wind and ruler of the cardinal points.. The order of repetition of the words given by the glyphs varies in some of the plates. The series is in fact a repetition of the compound glyph of the Peresianus, as shown in my plate, fig. 21, with the addition of the title Chakikal, thus: Bacab, xakan ik, Chakikal = "Ruler of the Cardinal Points, God of Wind." (Bacab =ruler, xakan-ik=the "cardinal points" or the winds that revolve around it; Chak="God,” ik="wind," or this latter may be read="hurricane.")

Especial attention is called to the glyph fig. 45 in this series, where three Kan glyphs express the name Kukulkan, their different phonetic values being indicated by the small phonetic additions attached to the top of the glyphs inside of its enclosing circle, see figs. 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51. The name of Kukulkan is also repeated on Plate 23, Peresianus; three Canac glyphs being used, their values being changed by the phonetic additions attached. See figs. 235, 236, 238, 239, Plate II.

Fig. 73 is a well-known glyph in the Peresianus. It has been designated by me the Chak glyph from the fact that the phonetic elements within it express that word and the figures attached to the glyphs in the Peresianus, there is good reason to think, are chaks or bacabs, supporting my analysis of its phonetic elements. The phonetic elements of which it is composed are frequently repeated in Maya script and are among the most primitive of those represented in Part 1 of this article, published in Science, No. 567.

A repetition of the title Bacab-xakanik, with the yellow color appearing with phonetic value, is given in the series, Plate II, figs. 80 to 844, taken from Plate 16, Peresianus. See also series figs.85 to 101. The glyph fig. 102 my analysis indicates to be that of u Hoobnil-Kan. The dotted aspirate circle, fig. 104. gives He, derived from the phonetic value of cho or sho, xo vjs. The square, fig. 105. encloses the same elements that are found in the day sign Chuen, and its phonetic value cha is indicated by the square in which it is enclosed-the square, generally, being associated with á, Ka v/s, sounds. If the same elements referred to were in a circle they would probably be cho or chu, as the circle is intimately associated with

i, o, u, ch; ik sounds. The square and circle are probably vowel elements; see Article I, Plate I, figs 27, 43.

NOTES ON THE GENUS STROMATOCERIUM.

BY HENRY M. SEELY, MIDDLEBURY, VERMONT. ONE wishing to recall the typical form of the genus Stromatocerium turns to Hall's monumental work, "Palæontology of New York," and in Vol. I., p. 48, finds the description of this well-marked genus. The horizon of Stromatocerium ragosum is that of the rocks of the lowest member of the Trenton period, that is, the Black River. This fossil is accepted as a guide in determining the rocks of that epoch.

That this form should flit across one geological horizon, should come and go, having no ancestry and leaving no descendants, seems strange. But this sudden appearance and disappearance is more apparent than real. It may not be possible to trace exact lineage, but likenesses and relationships are quite evident. The relatal forms are Cryptozoon below and Stromatopora above. It is true these are somewhat widely separated, both by structure and by stratigraphical position. Yet in general structure they are so alike that one has often been mistaken for the other.

We may briefly consider the stratigraphical relation of the Stromatocerium to the Cryptozoon in the rocks lying below. Immediately beneath the Black River is the Chazy, the rocks of which at their best estate have a thickness of near 900 feet. Beneath the Chazy lies the Calciferous, with its distinct divisions of rocks, the formation having a thickness of near 2,000 feet.

The rocks of these two epochs bordering Lake Champlain and filling so great part of the valley between the Green Mountains and the lake have a recognized likeness. Had not the name, Champlain, been preoccupied, this term could have been applied with appropriateness to the time period which would be constituted of the two epochs, Coazy and Calciferous.

The Chazy rocks may be looked upon as a wedge separating the Calciferous from the Black River rocks. The edge of this wedge in some places thins down and disappears, so the Black River is let down in contact with the Calciferous. the Calciferous. The stratigraphical separation between the Cryptozoon and the Stromatocerium thus becomes

zero.

So far as horizon is concerned the Cryptozoon may have clambered up into the Black River rocks. But the piling up of a little less than a thousand feet of Chazy rock, mostly calcareous, indicates the passage of a long interval of time. The sponge-like forms of the Chazy are not Cryptozoa. The concentric structure has been retained by several, yet they are clearly distinguishable from that fossil. One of the most noticeable of these forms is a Stromatocerium.

The genus as characterized by Professor Hall may admit of considerable variation, yet these Chazy forms in all essentials correspond to the type. They differ, however, from Stromatocerium vagosum, and so widely do they diverge that the difference can hardly be less than specific. They have been studied with some care and specific names applied, but a general statement of position and character will be enough for the present.

The divisions of the Chazy rocks may be properly designated from below upward A, B, C. Distinct forms of Stromatocerium are found in each. That found in A, the lowest division, has a growth in shape and sometimes in size like the old-time straw bee hive. It appears in B but somewhat modified in form. The special form in B is peculiar in growth and massiveness. The fossil is made up of a series of corrugations, these being from a quarter of an inch to a half inch in height. Blocks three feet by

tight lifted from the quarry are sometimes made up mostly of this form. In division C are several forms; a noticeable one has its fresh surface covered with mastoidal eminences; these when cut down by weathering leave a series of beautiful rings or concentric circles. Examples of this species are not unlike an inverted saucer in shape. The species found in A may be collected at Chazy, N. Y., and at many localities in Vermont; those in B and C at their appropriate horizons at Isle La Motte, Vt. The form in B is incidentally largely distributed through the country and will be found when looked for in the tiled floors of almost every public building where Isle La Motte marble has been used. In museums, too, it will be found under title of "Isle La Motte banded limestone." The place above all others for display of S. vagosum is a little island, at the entrance of Button Bay, three miles south of Fort Cassin, Vt., where a layer 20 to 30 inches thick is exclusively of this form and Columnavia alveolata, H.

The following facts are evident: (1) the genus Stromatocerium does not make its first appearance in the Black River; it is there rather in its decadence; (2) it appears in the lower Chazy, following close upon the Cryptocoon, and persists through the different divisions; (3) it cannot of itself be trusted as a safe indication of the Black River.

However, it should be noticed that Stromatocerium vagosum is most frequently paired with Columnaria alveolata, and the presence of the two forms establishes beyond question the presence of the Black River.

BY J. W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S., MT. VERNON, N.Y. ABOUT fifteen years ago, while setting a piece of heavy mining machinery that revolved on a vertical shaft, work was brought to a stand by the discovery that the journal, intended as a chair and box for the cone-shaped bearing, was considerably too small. A speculative workman thought it might wear down to shape, however, and started the machinery. The experiment, though of doubtful success from a mechanical standpoint, was brilliantly successful in another light. The bearing and journal, both of drop-forged steel, were welded to each other and broke into a dozen pieces. The interesting point, however, was the fact that two forgings of laminated steel under the agency of heat were converted to a metamorphic form. At the surface of welding the laminated steel became crystalline, and even the parts at some distance ⚫became semi-crystalline. It was a fair illustration of what is now called dynamo-metamorphism.

In a very remarkable paper presented to the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of England, Mr. Charles Callaway, D. Sc., F.G.S., has published the result of his researches on the origin and formation of certain crystaline schists found in the Malvern Hills, in the west of England. A close study of these schists during a period of five years has brought Dr. Callaway to the conclusion that they were produced by a dynamo-metamorphosis not different in essential principles from the illustration described in the preceding paragraph. Ordinarily, metamorphism in rocks may be briefly described as the change that a sedimentary rock undergoes when subjected to intense pressure in the presence of heat and moisture. The rock becomes more or less crystalline, and there is a tendency from homogeneity to heterogeneity in mineral structure. The production of metamorphism by the

shearing of rock and the gradual sliding or movement of the one mass upon the surface of the other is called dynamo-metamorphism. Neither the name nor the idea originated with Dr. Callaway, but the thorough exposition the subject has received at his hands entitles him to a foremost place among the pioneers in this field of research, and the results he has obtained are an important step in advance in the field of dynamic geology.

The Malvern Hills are mainly composed of masses of igneous rock, granitic in character, the constituents chiefly considered being binary granite and two kinds of dorite. In certain localities there are exposed bands of crystalline schist, apparently as seams of subsequent intercalation but really cataclastic in origin. These seams are the shear-zones within which the schist-making process occurred. Aside from the normal metamorphism which took place, the chief factor seemed to be a distinct shearing movement that resulted in a fusion sufficiently complete to produce plasticity.

Among the mechanical changes was the transformation of diorite into mica-gneiss. In the process of transformation the pulverized mineral not infrequently passed through an intermediate stage of laminated grit that simulated a sediment. A still more interesting change was the injection of potash and potassium feldspar into diorite, and a similar transference of the corresponding sodium salts into granite. In still other cases, diorite and granite were mutually interlaced. Chlorite and ferric oxide produced by the decomposition of diorite were injected or infiltrated into the cracks, cleavage and shearplanes of crushed granite and often migrated to a considerable distance, giving rise to an interfoliation of chlorite and biotite with the quartz, feldspar, and muscovite of the resulting gneiss.

The mineral changes may be classified as (a) decomposition, (2) transition, and (c) reconstruction. The massive rocks pass into schists through a process of decomposition, followed and partly accompanied by a process of reconstruction, in which the newly-formed quartz and feldspar crystallize, after the secondary consolidation. The chief mineral changes of the schist-making process are (a) the replacement of orthoclase by quartz and muscovite; (b) of plagioclase by the quartz and muscovite; (c) of chlorite by biotite and white mica; (d) and of biotite by white mica. The liberation of potassium from the granite is sometimes accompanied by silicification of the veins and the production of garnets. The reconstruction of feldspar is also a prominent feature in the metamorphism.

Among the chemical changes the following are noteworthy: (a) the mutual transference of sodium and potassium compounds between diorite and granite, also previously noted among physical changes; (2) the removal of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium and iron compounds when diorite is converted to gneissoid quartzite; (c) the retention of aluminium and the elimination of alkaline compounds when diorite is metamorphosed to muscovite.

Dr. Callaway's researches involved the preparation of about 500 thin sections of rock for study with the microscope, and a large number of chemical analyses. His hypotheses are bold and ingenious, involving metasomatosis on a large scale. Subsequent investigations, however, have not disproved them; on the contrary they have been strongly confirmed. It is interesting, moreover, to compare the work of Dr. Callaway with that of Mr. Van Hise on the schists of the Penokee iron-bearing series (U. S. Geol. Survey, Rep. 1888 and 1889, pp. 429 et seq.). The ideas shadowed in Mr. Van Hise's report could not have been more fully confirmed than they have been by Dr. Callaway, working independently at the same time on rocks several thousand miles away.