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started. He concludes his enumeration by summing up in the whole 383 towers, 7020 battlements, 6 posterns, 106 corbels, and 2066 large windows.

Procopius numbers fourteen gates in the circuit of the city, but unfortunately he gives the names of a few only, and the same number is given by the Einsiedeln chronicler three hundred years afterwards, who names them all in the following order: 1. Porta Flaminia; 2. Pinciana; 3. Salaria; 4. Nomentana; 5. Tiburtina; 6. Prænestina ; 7. Asinaria; 8. Metronia; 9. Latina; 10. Appia: 11. Ostiensis; 12. Portuensis; 13. Aurelia; 14. S. Peter's. Procopius, however, calls 13 the gate of Pancratius, now S. Pancrazio. From this list are omitted the Porta Ardeatina, the starting-point of the Via of that name, which is still standing between the Porta Appia and Ostiensis, though long closed; also the Porta Lateranensis, existing and traceable, though much walled up; and thirdly, the Porta Chiusa, of which the true name is unknown, against the Prætorian Camp. All these had been long disused and closed, and were therefore omitted in the Itinerary. These would bring the total number of the gates up to seventeen, and if we add Porta Septimiana on the Transtiberine side (for there must have been a gate in Regio XIV. communicating between it and the country to the north), we have the whole number of eighteen gates, which in Pliny's time formed the entrances into the city.

In the modern circuit of wall the gates open and in use are as follows: I. Porta del Popolo, very near the site of Porta Flaminia; the latter was not, it seems, on the flat ground, but on the slope of the hill rising above the Campus Martius, and therefore a little to the east of the present gate. II. Porta Salaria, identical with No. 3. III. Porta Pia, a modern gate, a little to the north-west of the ancient Porta Nomentana. IV. Porta S. Lorenzo, identical with Porta Tiburtina, No. 5. V. Porta Maggiore, identical with Porta Prænestina, Labicana, and Esquilina, No. 6. VI. Porta S. Giovanni, modern, a little to the east of the Porta Asinaria. VII. Porta Metronia; a new gate is to be made here by the side of the ancient No. 8. VIII. Porta Latina, long closed, identical with the old No. 9. IX. Porta S. Sebastiano, identical with Porta Appia, No. 10. Χ. Porta S. Paolo, identical with Porta Ostiensis, No. 11. On the Transtiberine side, XI. Porta Portense, about three hundred yards farther north, or inside of the old Porta Portuensis, No. 12. XII. Porta S. Pancrazio, identical with Porta Janiculensis, No. 13. In addition there are now five gates under and about the Vatican, and all of mediæval or post-mediæval construction. Those on the west side, through the line of fortification, are called Porta Cavalleggieri, Porta Fabbrica, and Porta Pertusa; and the two on the north side, through the line of wall which connects the Vatican with the Castle of S. Angelo, are the Porta Angelica and Porta Castello. In the original Leonine City three gates were built, and these are believed to have remained till the return of the Popes from Avignon, when new streets grew up, and new gates were provided.

Some well-informed antiquaries are of opinion that the gate known by the name of Porta Chiusa, or the closed gate (because, when the gates were named in the sixteenth century, the name of this could not be agreed upon), is really the old Porta Tiburtinab, on the most direct road to Tibur, or Tivoli; and the ancient road called Via Cupa, which is cut through the tufa rock for about a quarter-of-a-mile, leads from this gate, and joins the present road near the church of S. Lorenzo f. m., which gives the name to the present gate.

The interior gate of the kingly period, corresponding with this original Tivoli gate, was Porta Viminalis.

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THE STREETS AND ROADS.

CONSIDERATION of these naturally follows that of the Walls and Gates, through which they issued. The great Viæ Stratæ, leading from the city to the provinces, and reckoned with justice by Strabo and other writers among the wonders of construction achieved by the Romans, are highly celebrated; and as the names of the chief among them occur frequently in history, they have become familiar to us. Everybody knows the direction of the Via Appia, Flaminia, or Æmilia; and there are so many of these Roman streets, as they are called, left in Britain, as in other countries permanently held by that people, that a general idea of the nature of their roads is quite common. Directness, solidity, durability, were their special features; and these are strongly impressed on us when we find not merely the line of street, but the very pavement itself unaltered, and virtually unaffected by the traffic of centuries. The material used in Rome, and wherever such stone could be had, was black basaltic lava, laid in polygonal blocks; and interesting examples of such paved work exist still, especially in the most ancient portions of the city.

The method of street construction was of necessity entirely different from that adopted in modern cities, which are laid out in lines of buildings with adequate roadways between them. But Rome was, as we have seen, only an aggregation of hill-fortresses, gradually brought within one connected line of defence. Between the several hills were natural valleys, and these were trenched out so as to become wide and deep fosses, for defence at the foot of each height. Then there must have been a foss by the side of each agger that was thrown up to connect two adjacent hills. There was also the great eastern agger of the City on the Seven Hills, with its double foss; and in each of these there would be a road as a matter of course, according to the almost universal practice in the early times, when these fortifications were constructed. Such roads at first were probably nothing more than track-ways upon the soil, and as time went on some harder material was added; but the elaborate Via Strata was a much later invention. These ways, therefore, were the first means of communication within the city. And in the time of the Republic and of the Empire each of these roads in the trenches became streets in our sense of the word, by building houses against the bank, often cutting away part of the bank to admit the back of the house. This arrangement was distinctly shewn in the excavations made near the railway station, after the great agger of Servius had been cut through. The houses on one side of a street, in the style of the first century, were brought to light, built into that bank. The railway itself runs for a short distance on the site of the old roadway, about twenty feet above its level. There was a similar street on the outer side of the bank, and in one of the houses in this line paintings on the walls were found. It is plain from this example that the old banks, being no longer cared for as defences, were built into or built over as might be convenient, and that along the line of their fosses rows of houses were planted. And it is found usually that the streets within the city occupying the old foss-ways lay about twenty feet below the ordinary surface of the ground. In some places two pavements have been found, at different levels; and there is good reason for believing that those on the higher stage were added in the second century.

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The old streets, sunk so deeply, were not calculated for the passage of carriages, for they were frequently only about three yards wide. In consequence of their inconvenience for carriage-traffic, and of the unwillingness in Republican times to incur the expense and annoyance of making new streets in an old city, the authorities sought to meet the difficulty by issuing edict after edict against the use of carriages in the streets. This state of things continued till about the middle of the second century of the Christian era, when these edicts ceased, and new streets were made by bringing up the level of the ancient fossways to a convenient height. Upon the hill sides the streets were open cuttings, ascending the incline in zigzag fashion; and from the deep hollow ways steps led up to the top of the banks. Not only within the area of the city of Servius, but in other parts of Rome, there are indications of these paved ways, and at great depths. A buried street was found in the Transtiberine region, near the palace of the Anicii, thirty feet below the present surface, indicating one of the sunken foss-ways leading from the Janiculum to the city, at the time when the former was a separate fortress, connected with Rome by such deep foss-ways only.

The earliest distinct notice about the streets within the city is believed to be when Augustus placed the gilt column called Milliarium Aureum in the Forum Romanum, which he intended to be the central point from which all the roads should be measured throughout Italy; it was also called Umbilicus Urbis. But it seems that this plan was never carried out; the roads continued to be measured from the gates, as they had been before. The streets within the city were measured from this starting-point, as is plain from the passage in Pliny, where he calculates the aggregate length of all the ways in Rome from it in a direct line to the gates.

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