in the very Vatican itself, discuss with a descendant of Galileo's disciples the world-famous process, and separate the scientific question from those personal accessories which embittered it. The subsequent republication of the official papers thoroughly confirmed what the Inquisitor had stated; and the opening of M. Biot's third volume is devoted to a lucid reproduction of all the particulars of this famous trial.

presented the work as a "collection of scien- | of getting into disgrace with the Pope, who tific fancies," which he desired the censor to had formerly shown him great kindness. He read carefully, to strike out any thing that represented the Pope in the Dialogues under might seem in any way improper, and, in the name of Simplicius; and in alluding to short, to exercise a severe censorship with re- the whim he was said to have for writing gard to it. The worthy prelate, more ortho- verses, Galileo did not hesitate to say that the dox than clear-sighted, read this work, re-read Pope was given to amorous sonnetteering. it without detecting any evil, and gave it to Be sure that these personal mistakes powerone of his colleagues, who confirmed his fully contributed to his ruin." When M. opinion. He therefore gave full permission Biot discovered that he had been speaking to for its publication. The ruse had succeeded the Grand Inquisitor, he very naturally exthus far. Yet, to avail himself of this per-pressed his surprise at the change which had mission, Galileo would have been forced to come over the spirit of the world, when a print the work in Rome; and he had too descendant of the judges of Galileo could, many clear-sighted enemies there, to hope that they would not detect the real nature of his work in time to suppress its publication. He made some excuse respecting the difficulties of printing at Rome, and wrote from Florence to the censor to obtain permission to print the work there, under the condition of gaining the approbation of a Florentine censor. The prelate seems to have had his suspicions roused. He made some difficulties; indicated a Florentine censor; but asked Galileo to send back the permission he had given, that he might once more see the terms in which it was expressed. Galileo was outwitted, returned the permission, and never got it again, nor any other answer; so that forced to content himself with the Florentine permission, he published his work in Tuscany, 1632, and endeavored to shield himself by declaring in his preface that these dialogues were a defence of the judgment delivered by Rome against the doctrines of Copernicus. Voltaire might as well have declared his Philosophical Dictionary to have been written in defence of Christianity. No one was ever deceived by this preface. Certainly no one in Rome could have any doubt as to the purpose of the book; least of all the Pope, who knew that he was personally ridiculed in this book, his own arguments being reproduced by the stupid Simplicius.

Had Galileo taken the advice of the Cardinals Barberino and Bellarmino, to publish his views as mathematical speculations only, it is very probable that he would not have been molested. Copernicus had done so, and the Church was not alarmed. But Galileo's convictions were too strong, or his imprudence too great; and the consequence was, that not only was he denounced by bigoted theologians, but even the science of mathematics itself became denounced as "a diabolical art, and all mathematicians being the authors of heresies ought to be banished from every Christian country." To such lengths will bigotry lead men! The doctrine of Copernicus was condemned as heretical, as we have seen; but in 1623 Galileo's friend, the Cardinal Barberino, became Pope Urban VIII., from whom Galileo had the highest hopes of getting the sentence against the Copernican doctrine removed, because the We come here to the real and personal Pope had shown him great attention, and cause of Galileo's troubles. In 1825, M. written verses, astronomical and moral, in adBiot had a long and interesting conversation miration of his genius; nay, no sooner was at the Vatican with an enlightened ecclesias- Urban VIII. seated in the pontifical chair, tic, who, he subsequently learned, was no less than he addressed a letter to the Grand-Duke a person than the Grand Inquisitor. From of Tuscany, in whose service Galileo lived, this person, thoroughly informed, as it turned which mentioned the astronomical discoveries out, on the whole details of the story, M. of Galileo among the Tuscan glories. On Biot heard of Galileo's inconceivable impru- the strength of this the philosopher hastened dence. "He committed the great mistake to Rome, to endeavor to get a revocation of

But although Galileo was forced to appear before the Inquisition, and was greatly alarmed at the peril of his position, it is abundantly evident that he was treated with great respect and consideration. He was never imprisoned. He was allowed a servant, and the visits of friends. He had free egress and ingress, and a garden of the Villa Medici was offered him for daily promenades. Care was taken that he did not escape, but no other rigor was used. Instead of being "tortured," as Tiraboschi, Libri, and almost all historians assert, nothing is more positive than that he was subject to no other tortures than those of alarm at what might possibly be the upshot of the whole, and of irritation at being forced to retract what he knew to be the truth.

the sentence. He soon found that in Rome, | argument which neither he nor any of his as elsewhere, authority is indisposed to unsay disciples have ever been able to answer, nor what it has once said. He found the Pope ever will: it is, that God is omnipotent; and himself inclined to the Aristotelian view; and if so, why should we pretend to impose necesall were strongly convinced that the interdict sities upon him?" This is precisely the arwas a measure of ecclesiastical prudence.gument cited by Simplicius in the Dialogue The most moderate suggested to him that no just quoted. scientific speculations ought to be placed in opposition to the Scriptures. "As to Padre Mostro (the Dominican Ricardi)" writes Galileo," he adheres neither to the system of Corpernicus, nor to that of Ptolemy, but tranquillizes his mind by a method of his own, which is vastly convenient: he imagines the presence of angels, who, without any difficulty, move the planets in their paths, so that we have nothing to trouble ourselves about." Finding the case hopeless in this direction, Galileo adopted the plan we have already narrated, and published his Dialogues under a transparent disguise. Rome was in an uproar. The Pope was in a fury (incandescenza) at finding his own arguments made ridiculous, and himself clearly alluded to. Galileo had doubly offended him-as a Pope and as a man: as a Pope, by deceiving the vigilance of the censorship, and as a man by rendering his opinions ridiculous. At the close of the Fourth Dialogue, Simplicius says, "Here is one argument which I learned from a very learned and very eminent person, and which settles the whole question: it is that God, being omnipotent and omniscient, may have endowed water with this property of flux and reflux, as well as with an infinity of properties incomprehensible to us. That being so, I conclude that it would be highest audacity in any man to think of limiting that omnipotence and omniscience by any fancy of our invention." This learned and eminent person was the Pope.

Con

His punishment was very slight. demned to imprisonment during the pleasure of the Pope, that sentence was immediately (subito) commuted into detention at the Villa Medici. Even there he only remained a few days, having gained permission to reside with the Archbishop Piccolomini, at Sienna. There he remained five months, and 'hen was permitted to return to his house near Florence, under the express condition of not seeing much company, and of holding no academic meetings. To the close of his life he remained under the suspicious surveillance of the Church; and on his death, fanatics contested the validity of his will, and wanted to refuse him the rites of sepulture, under the pretext of his having expired before the condemnation of the Church had been removed. But these hateful tentatives were judicially frustrated, and Florence has nothing to answer for as respects the memory of her great

Galileo was summoned to appear before the Inquisition. In vain he appealed to his protectors, in vain he alleged his age and infirmities. He was told that he might travel slowly, pian, piano, in a litter, but that come he must. The letters of Galileo's friend Nic-philosopher. colini to the Grand-Duke are still extant, and If M. Biot's volumes contained nothing but give a sort of journal of the whole story, full of interesting detail. We there learn that the Pope was greatly incensed, and pursued the matter "as if it were his own cause.' Indeed, to all Niccolini's urgent prayers the Pope continued to reply: "Galileo will be examined in due time. But there is one

the articles on Newton and Galileo, they would deserve a place in every scientific library; but they deserve a place also for the many agreeable pages of literature they contain, and for the memoirs of Lagrange, Coulomb, Cavendish, Franklin, Gay Lussac, Cauchy, Clouet, Malus, and La Condamine.

true specimen of the Gauls, and very pleasantly painted in these pages.

Apropos of the last named there is an amus- | him. He made witticisms about his suffering anecdote, which may be detached here. ings, and even wrote songs about them. A La Condamine's curiosity was invincible; he was the very Paul Pry of science; and this curiosity was coupled with a gaiety and reck- In the short notice of Lagrange there are lessness truly French. In his last illness, two witticisms reported by M. Biot as having being prevented from attending as usual the been uttered in his presence, which, for flavor meetings of the Academy, he had notes of expression, and finesse of observation, debrought to him of all the papers which were serve a place in every collection of mots. M. read there. In one of them he learned that Biot one day remarked on the fact that an a young surgeon had proposed a bold but opinion, after being alternately adopted and dangerous operation for one of the diseases rejected, admitted and modified by philosounder which he suffered. He sent for this phers, often becomes at last a popular prejuyoung surgeon, and proposed that the experi- dice. "Eh quoi!” replied Lagrange, "cela ment should at once be tried upon himself. vous étonne? Cependant il en arrive tou "But," hesitated the young man, " if I should jours ainsi; les préjugés ne sont que la déunhappily fail?" "Well, what then? I am old and dangerously ill: it will be said that nature did not properly assist you. If, on the contrary, you succeed, I will myself draw up an exact account of your method for the Academy, and you will be a made man." The matter was arranged. The operation began, but La Condamine was not satisfied with suffering; he was curious to learn the whole process. "Gently," he exclaimed; "please be slower, and let me see how you operate. . . . My dear sir, if I don't see how you do it, I shall never be able to draw up a proper account for the Academy."

froque des gens d'esprits qui habille la canaille." ["What," replied Lagrange, "does that surprise you? It is always soprejudices are only the cast off clothes of men of intelligence, in which the vulgar are dressed.] The second is so uncomplimentary to the fair sex, that there is some temerity in citing it; but wit is no respecter of sex or person: "La tête d'une femme est une éponge à préjugés." [The head of a woman is a sponge for prejudices.]

With this we close our notice of three eminently agreeable and instructive volumes, convinced that we must have sharpened the Unhappily he died shortly after the opera-reader's appetite for a more deliberate investion, but his gaiety and courage never forsook | tigation of them.

OUR GREAT LAKES.-Lieut. Maury recently | off, and a sluice to be opened the size of the delivered at Detroit a lecture on our great lakes. The chain of lakes contain one-third of the fresh water on the surface of the globe-the entire surface of the earth being divided as follows:

Mississippi channel, it would flow for a century, in draining these vast inland seas. The lakes contain a surface of two thousand square miles, and drain a watershed of fifty thousand square

miles.

According to Col. Graham's report for 1855 to the department at Washington, the value of the shipping and commerce interested in the construction of a single breakwater at Michigan City was $218,000,000, and, according to observation taken, the value of the shipping and commerce passing the flats of the St. Clair, on an average of two hundred and thirty days the busy season, reached the daily average of $1,129,223. The entire value of the lake commerce was $200,000,000 to each lake, varying more in favor of Lakes Michigan and Huron, less to Lake Superior, and as Lake Erie is as an outlet to others, amounting in its case to $300,000,000.

From Tait's Magazine. lamps, however, and the discordant notes of AN EVENING PARTY AT ALEPPO. a Syrian band, point out the spot of revelry; OUR friend Signor Esdras de Pittzolounsy, and, though early ourselves, we find that who is a Polish Hebrew by descent, but a veri- many other guests have preceded us. "Allah! table Aleppine by birth and education; who sollah! meet sulam!" Welcome, a thouis, moreover, the representative (consular) of sand times welcome," exclaims our stout little ever so many petty European potentates- hostess, who, clad in Syrian attire, of the witness his varied uniforms and cocked hats richest and gaudiest colored silks, receives us and feathers (say nothing to numerous con- at the door, and ushers us to a seat at the sular cawasses, with silver-headed canes and further end of the room. In moving along fierce moustache)—our friend Signor Esdras we perceive that the room is handsomely and is "at home" this evening, and he sends us elegantly furnished; there is no lack of mira polite invitation, which we cheerfully accept. rors or chandeliers, no lack of pictures. The Signor Esdras, besides being a great man in low divan which runs round three sides of the a diplomatic sense, and the terror of many room is covered with rich material, and the consecutive iniquitous Pashas, is believed to cushions are exclusively of velvet. Under be the possessor of almost fabulous wealth, foot there is a carpet of the softest texture, and his private residence is situated at Kittab, interwoven with ostrich feathers. It seems a small European town in the suburbs of almost a sin to tread upon it with our heavy Aleppo. This Kittab originally consisted of boots; but the greater mass of male visitors a few temporary huts, lightly erected, and are in Oriental attire, and have deposited which grew into existence in consequence of their rough red slippers outside of the door, the fearful and devastating effects of the earth- retaining only the soft, yellow, morocco papquake of 1822, when the European residents pooshes. The ladies have, for the greater at Aleppo arrived at the wise conclusion that part, adopted European shoes and sandals, lath and plaster, and thin light rafters, were mostly of some splendid Parisian pattern, preferable substances to come into immediate with a bunch of brilliant flowers worked in contact with the human skull, to the ponder- about the instep. In traversing the room, ous stones, and still more ponderous beams, preceded by our amiable hostess, we have furwhich constitute the houses of Aleppo-proper. ther observed that she carries a small treasury As time wore on, however, and no repetition of coins and pearls about her tarboosh or of the earthquake, or any thing approaching headdress, and that, moreover, suspended to it, occurred, the Kittabites became emboldened, and in the place of miserable plank huts, there arose rapidly substantial and handsome European houses, amongst which, perhaps the most costly and elegant in structure, is the domicile of the most illustrissimo signor in question.

Being only birds of passage, we reside in the very heart of the city itself, and have a good two miles' walk before us to reach Kittab; thither we proceed, therefore, with all convenient speed, soon after sunset, armed with a stout cudgel apiece, and a funnoosea species of paper lantern, which opens and shuts like an accordian, and which, when not in use, can be easily carried in a side pocket. Both these precautions are positively necessary, because, against we return, the hour will be late, and the streets literally teem with savage curs, and likewise freebooters-not the most merciful to encounter.

Night has fairly set in by the time we reach the house of entertainment; innumerable oil

from a score of plaited tails which hang over her shoulders and back, are various gold coins, of divers dimensions and value, quite sufficient to set up an unambitious Syrian in the shopkeeping line for life. Having noted these facts mentally we "fudthal "—i.e., are seated. On a more deliberate survey of the room and what it comprises, we find there is much to amuse and entertain the stranger. The room itself is exceedingly capacious and lofty, and in addition to the Oriental furniture it contains, has several handsome specimens of European workmanship, such as tables, sofas, and elegant easy chairs. In these latter, evidently ill at ease, are seated several illustrissimi-the consul-generals, consuls, and consular of every known power in the universe; their diplomatic coats are resplendent with gold lace; their cocked hats overwhelming. Perhaps the most imposing character amongst them is the Consul-General for the Queen of Spain, the Indies, and Cyprus. It is difficult to say what right her most Christian Majesty

has to these most distant possessions. About Aleppo. If there is any thing that he prizes in as much, I should imagine, as the representa- this world it is the glory and the pride of an tive has to mingle with the haut ton of the unsullied reputation. At any other moment, city of Aleppo. In his private capacity, he is perhaps, he would shrink with unqualified a retailer of crockeryware, ginger beer, bis- horror at the proximity of three such veritable cuits, hams, Bologna sausages, cigars, and knaves; but there is something so strangely sundry other items useful, refreshing, and ani- charitable in the atmosphere of Aleppine somating to his customers; but he is really so ciety that these little trifles are cast aside for illiterate that whenever the Consular signa- the moment, and everybody who, in the reture is required, he prefixes (Oriental style) motest sense, helps to add to the evening's his cygnet. entertainment, is treated on an equal footing. Entertaining in another line, and certainly the greatest curiosity, is Signor Nola Fotoloh Carallah, the husband of a large wife, and the father of a small family of grown-up daughters With pride depicted in his small keen eyes, he is relating to an astounded and indignant English traveller the method by which, once upon a time, he rid himself of a wealthy, but obnoxious partner, and came into quiet possession of half his wealth. With what dexterity he managed to conceal a costly ring in a truss of hay belonging to the unfortunate victim, and so, when the police came and searched, and after tedious efforts discovered the supposed stolen treasure, the wretched victim was incarcerated by the Pasha, who took possession of one half of his worldly effects while his partner possessed himself of the other. Signor Fotoloh is rather surprised at the evident disgust of his auditor, who shrinks from the contamination of such a vile snake.

There is one feature in Aleppine society which is peculiar to this city; in no other part of Syria or the Levant is there such toleration of caste. High and low, rich and poor, so long as they can put their best foot forward, and present themselves in admissible apparel -they are all welcome-heartily welcome. Yonder gay Lothario, with a parroquette nose and enormous moustache, who is screeching discordant sounds, said to be an arrietta from Rosini, and twanging a Spanish guitar with most grotesque attitundes and hideous gesticulations, is Signor Bombacello, the gentleman who had the honor-I beg his pardon, I mean who honored us, by erasing traces of hair from our chin and cheeks-in vulgar phraseology, he is our barber. By his side, in resplendent waistcoats, and massive (gilt) chains, are his two brothers, the Signor Tominaso and the Signor Bartolomeo; the former lives by sleight of hand tricks, the latter upon his wits. In a country so destitute of excitement as Syria they are both welcome in their way, if only to serve as a butt for criticism. The one is a card sharper, and knows no end of jugglery, making it almost a pleasure to lose him a few piastres at any game of chance. The other is a veritable vagabond, rolling from one end of Turkey to the other, unencumbered with much baggage, carrying usually assortments of watches (monsters, as he calls them, in his peculiar way of pronouncing the French term for watch), which watches he generally disposes of to those who have hospitably entertained him at somewhere about 1,000 per cent profit. A clever mechanic this said Bartolomeo must be; his watches usually go twentyfour hours after date of sale, in which interval he has shifted his quarters to some other town or city, and the watch on examination is found minus some wheel.

Next to this group, a striking contrast indeed, is the gray-bearded, venerable old gentleman who represents British interests at

Amongst the ladies there are many costumes and some exceedingly pretty faces. The generality are, unfortunately, slightly disfigured by that abominable boil called the Aleppo button. In some instances however, where the impression has been slight, it assumes the appearance of a dimple, and really adds to the native charms of the damsel. They exhibit the latest Parisian fashions, as led by Madame Pompoloni, the esteemed spouse of the Neapolitan Consul, the hybrid costume of the half Arab half European descendants, down to the flowing and not ungraceful tunic of the veritable pure blooded Syrian. Flirtations there are on an extensive scale, and what is superlatively ludicrous, is the fact that the gallants in such instances consist principally of men who cannot comprehend one word of what the fair ladies express, or convey any notion of the soft sayings they would wish to breathe. The bluff captain Mainbrace, of the schooner Water